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Descartes never explicitly discusses linguistics. We owe the very notion of "Descartes' linguistics" to the investigations of Noam Chomsky, an American philosopher of language. Chomsky infers from Descartes' direct and indirect references to language that, from Descartes' perspective, language is, firstly, innate, secondly, originates from the individual rather than society, and thirdly, is a creative, not mechanical, act. This paper, employing a descriptive-analytical method and framed as a critique, aims to clarify and analyze a specific facet of Cartesian thought. It concludes that language, as Descartes could have described it, is subjectivist, and this approach presupposes the possibility of a private language. In essence, the individual and subjective nature of language necessitates accepting a private language. However, a private language has self-destructive implications, providing grounds for serious critiques of Descartes' linguistic view (as extracted by Chomsky).

This study critically examines a range of interpretative works on the Qur'anic verse, "This day, [all] good foods have been made lawful for you, and the food of those who were given the Scripture is lawful for you." (al-Māʼidah/5) By employing a comparative and analytical approach, the research explores the evolution of ijtihad and hermeneutics as applied to this key verse, which lies at the intersection of legal rulings, social ethics, and interreligious relations. The investigation traces the diverse exegetical traditions, from classical Tafsir by scholars such as al-Ṭabarī, Ibn Kathīr, and al-Rāzī to contemporary interpretations, and examines how historical, cultural, and doctrinal contexts have shaped juristic reasoning. In doing so, it reveals the verse’s critical role in establishing legal pluralism and fostering interfaith dialogue, thereby contributing to social cohesion and the development of inclusive legal frameworks. The study is guided by research questions that address the focus on the People of the Book, the historical and social catalysts for legal recognition, the influence of various jurisprudential schools, and the broader socio-political implications of these interpretations on religious pluralism and citizenship. Ultimately, this research contributes to current debates on the nature of Islamic legal thought and its capacity to inform modern discussions on multicultural governance and civic coexistence.

SUBJECT & OBJECTIVES: The paper provides a functionalist analysis of human free will and its impact on lifestyle from the perspective of Imam Ali . The discussion of free will and human influence over one’s actions is a significant issue in the fields of anthropology and theology, and it is interconnected with many topics in Islamic sciences and disciplines. Human beings possess various dimensions and characteristics, among which free will is a key feature. Imam Ali , in opposition to the prevalent deterministic interpretation, emphasized human free will and its impact on one’s actions. The belief in free will manifests in individuals’ lifestyles.METHOD & FINDING: In an analytical-descriptive method, this paper aims to examine the statements of Imam Ali  regarding human free will and its role in human lifestyle and progress. An active lifestyle or a passive lifestyle is considered a result of the belief in or denial of this free will. Progress and advancement in life, as well as divine happiness and reward, are achieved through free will, effort, and endeavor.CONCLUSION: Reward and punishment would be meaningless without free will. Effort and endeavor are fundamental aspects of lifestyle that arise from the belief in human free will. “An attempt to change undesirable conditions” and “Governance of belief” are among the manifestations of free will in individuals’ lifestyles. Man must strive to preserve freedom and not allow beliefs and values to be controlled by emotions.