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This research investigated the impact of varying planning conditions and task types on the accuracy of pupils' speaking abilities. Utilizing the Oxford Placement Test (OPT), 80 intermediate female participants nominated for the research and assigned to four untouched classes. These classes were planned as the individual-planning personal task class (IPPT class), the individual-planning decision-making task class (IPDT class), the class-planning personal task class (CPPT class), and the class-planning decision-making task class (CPDT class). Two concurrent decision making tasks were planned to be conducted both at the beginning and at the end of the experiment, while a six-week intervention was scheduled in between. Three sessions were dedicated to administering the OPT test, the pretest, and the posttest; and the students accomplished two dissimilar task types under two diverse planning situations throughout the other three treatment meetings. The results from the one-way ANOVA discovered that pre-task planning conditions and task types significantly influence the accuracy of speaking. These outcomes reinforce the notion that planning conditions have meaningful results on pupils' accomplishment in personal and decision-making tasks. Consequently, both planning conditions proved real in enhancing students' performance in speaking tasks. It is suggested that educators should give considerable attention to pre-task planning to alleviate EFL pupils' challenges in attaining upper ranks of accuracy in their speaking abilities.

The aim of this research paper is to explore how the rhetorical means employed by the United States of America are produced in cultural, historical, and political contexts. The public speeches will be delivered by the Presidents of the United States and other European leaders during the tenure of 2017-2024. The aim of this paper is to determine the extent to which cultural norms, political institutions, and historical backgrounds mold leadership engagement strategies of leaders from both regions through an analysis of a large corpus of political speeches. Importantly, the results show significant differences in political rhetoric styles, especially regarding individualism, power distance, and uncertainty avoidance. These are represented through the use of the Critical Discourse Analysis framework, Aristotle's Three Appeals, and Hofstede's Cultural Dimensions Theory. Based on the data analysis, it would appear that the United States of America. Generally speaking, presidents have a predisposition to utilize direct and forceful forms of communication, which must be that of American culture concerning individualism and leadership. Whereas in American politics, leaders do follow the straight and often inflexible line, in Europe, politicians are more diplomatic and multilateral, their approach emphasizing collective decision-making and cultural coherence.

This study aimed to explore the barriers and facilitators influencing the implementation of virtual reality (VR)-based therapy for emotional regulation in youth with exceptional needs. A qualitative research design was employed using semi-structured interviews with 23 purposefully selected participants, including special education teachers, therapists, caregivers, and VR developers, all based in Minnesota, USA. Participants were selected based on their direct involvement with VR therapy programs for youth with neurodevelopmental or emotional regulation challenges. Interviews were conducted until theoretical saturation was reached. Data were transcribed verbatim and analyzed using thematic analysis in NVivo 14, following Braun and Clarke’s six-phase framework. The analysis revealed two main thematic categories: facilitators and barriers. Facilitators included seven subthemes: technological appeal, personalization, therapist control, motivation and engagement, institutional support, caregiver involvement, and observable emotional gains. Barriers were categorized into seven subthemes as well: accessibility and equity issues, sensory limitations, stakeholder resistance, cultural irrelevance, technical difficulties, ethical and privacy concerns, and lack of standardized guidelines. Participants reported that immersive features, real-time therapist adjustments, and family buy-in enhanced VR’s therapeutic effectiveness. Conversely, cost constraints, lack of culturally appropriate content, and technical or ethical challenges hindered adoption. Quotes from stakeholders enriched the thematic interpretation and contextualized the results. VR-based therapy shows promising potential in enhancing emotional regulation among youth with exceptional needs due to its immersive, customizable, and engaging design. However, successful implementation depends on addressing contextual challenges, including accessibility, technical infrastructure, and cultural inclusivity. Stakeholder collaboration and the development of standardized protocols are essential to scale VR interventions in educational and clinical contexts.

The study on second language (L2) argumentative writing has explored various surfaces and dimensions of learner behavior and presentation, although fewer studies have studied effective pedagogical strategies to boost students’ argumentative skills. The current study mentions the gap by exploring the effect of explicit argumentative instruction on the writing abilities of 30 Iranian IELTS candidates, according to CEFR ranging from B1 to B2, in an English Language Institute in Karaj - Iran in both Persian and English, the former their native language and the latter their foreign language . As a set of authentic IELTS Task 2 prompts were used and taken from the language learners, the study analyzed 180 argumentative essays, both in English and Persian, written by the participants prior, while and after instruction. The outcomes had shown noteworthy enhancement in the students’ English argumentative performance, with the recurrent use of argumentation key elements such as ‘claim’, ‘data’, and the ‘counterarguments’. Though, less emphasis was put on advanced argumentative structures such as ‘counterclaims’ and ‘rebuttals’. The results suggest that structured pedagogy in teaching argumentation can positively influence learners’ proficiency in both first language (L1) and second language (L2) writing. The insinuations for teaching argumentative writing in multilingual contexts will be further discussed.

In recent decades, the importance of applying cultural dimension into language pedagogy has received extensive emphasis worldwide. The problem arises when EFL teachers are afraid of referring to cultural notions in their classes just because it seems that they lack sufficient cultural knowledge of the target language. This research study intended to inspect Iranian EFL teachers’ intercultural awareness by evaluating their opinions about the importance of cultural teaching. Sercu et al. (2005) adopted questionnaire was used to gather the anticipated data. The participants were comprised of 102 teachers who were provided with questionnaires in person using hard copies. An interview was conducted as well with participants in order to explore the difficulties they encounter in the way of teaching culture. the collected data were analyzed via statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) software. Content analysis was used for analyzing the qualitative data gathered from interview. The results showed that Iranian EFL teachers have favorable opinions about intercultural learning. They were unwilling to implement the intercultural approach to their teaching method because of time constraints, lack of suitable materials, and guidelines. Several implications are emergent from the findings including suggestions for educational policy-makers, material designers, language institutes, and teacher training programs.

This study aimed to examine the effectiveness of play therapy in improving sensory processing and distress tolerance in adolescents with mild intellectual disabilities. A randomized controlled trial was conducted with 30 adolescents aged 12 to 17 years, randomly assigned to either an intervention group (n = 15) receiving eight 90-minute sessions of play therapy or a control group (n = 15) receiving no intervention. Sensory processing and distress tolerance were assessed at baseline, post-intervention, and five-month follow-up using standardized measures. Data analysis was performed using repeated-measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Bonferroni post-hoc tests in SPSS-27 to evaluate within-group and between-group differences over time. The results indicated a significant main effect of time for both sensory processing (F(2, 84) = 92.32, p < 0.001) and distress tolerance (F(2, 84) = 111.60, p < 0.001), demonstrating substantial improvements across timepoints. The intervention group showed a notable increase in sensory processing scores from baseline (M = 48.72, SD = 5.91) to post-intervention (M = 64.15, SD = 6.38) and follow-up (M = 69.03, SD = 5.79), whereas the control group exhibited minimal change. Similarly, distress tolerance scores improved significantly in the intervention group (baseline: M = 42.85, SD = 6.27; post-intervention: M = 58.74, SD = 5.69; follow-up: M = 63.92, SD = 6.08), with no substantial improvement in the control group. The Bonferroni post-hoc test confirmed significant pairwise differences between baseline and subsequent assessments. Play therapy was found to be an effective intervention for enhancing sensory processing and distress tolerance in adolescents with mild intellectual disabilities, with improvements sustained at follow-up. These findings suggest that play-based interventions can be a valuable therapeutic approach for promoting sensory integration and emotional regulation in this population.

This study aimed to investigate the effect of teacher–student interaction quality on academic motivation in neurodivergent learners, with social relatedness examined as a mediating variable. A descriptive correlational design was employed using a sample of 403 neurodivergent secondary school students in Slovenia, selected based on Krejcie and Morgan’s sampling table. Standardized instruments were used to assess teacher–student interaction quality, social relatedness, and academic motivation, all measured on 7-point Likert scales. Data were analyzed using Pearson correlation in SPSS-27 to explore bivariate associations and Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) in AMOS-21 to test the hypothesized mediating model. Model fit was evaluated using multiple indices, including χ²/df, GFI, AGFI, CFI, TLI, and RMSEA. The results indicated significant positive correlations among all variables: teacher–student interaction quality was positively correlated with social relatedness (r = .61, p < .001) and academic motivation (r = .55, p < .001), while social relatedness was strongly correlated with academic motivation (r = .67, p < .001). The SEM analysis showed an acceptable model fit (χ²/df = 2.35, CFI = 0.97, RMSEA = 0.057). Teacher–student interaction quality had significant direct effects on both social relatedness (β = .61, p < .001) and academic motivation (β = .26, p < .001). Social relatedness significantly predicted academic motivation (β = .58, p < .001), and also mediated the relationship between teacher–student interaction and academic motivation (indirect β = .35, p < .001), confirming a partial mediation model. The findings underscore the critical role of social relatedness in explaining how supportive teacher–student interactions enhance academic motivation among neurodivergent learners. Educational interventions that strengthen relational dynamics in inclusive classrooms may foster higher motivation and academic engagement in this population.

While there are varying perspectives on the bases of reflective practice within the teaching context, there is a broad consensus that reflection is fundamental to building a teacher's professional identity and improving their development. This study sought to investigate the perceptions of EFL teachers of reflective skills of Iranian effective teachers. To this end, a grounded theory design was used. Participants consisted of 30 conveniently selected female intermediate EFL learners from a language institute in Mashhad. For data collection, semi-structured interview and written reflective journal were used. Data analysis was done through manual thematic analysis via open, axial and selective coding. The results showed the following perceptions of EFL teachers of reflective skills of Iranian EFL effective teachers: 1. Behaving in a socially acceptable manner; 2. Being able to motivate students; 3. Managing classroom; 4. Attending to students' diversity of needs; 5. Planning appropriate teaching and evaluation methods and strategies; etc. Moreover, according to the results, the least important reflective skills of Iranian EFL effective teachers were attending to students' diversity of needs, and being able to motivate students. In addition, the most important reflective skills of Iranian EFL effective teachers were evaluating one's own teaching, making appropriate modifications in one's own teaching, thinking skillfully, planning appropriate teaching and evaluation methods and strategies, and managing classroom. The results have some implications for policymakers, teacher educators, authorities in charge of recruiting teachers.

This paper adopted the Eco-feminism approach to explore Shell Shaker, solely filled with Native American settings and issues. So, both nature and the woman of the Native American context were the focus of the study. The researcher showed how the Native American women can be representative of the nature of their ancestral lands and identify with it. The main argument that the researcher intended to study was parallel roles of both women and natural land for Native American. To this purpose, theories and notions of several thinkers were exploited. The researcher found different scenes in the novel that show both aspects of nature which include the mentioned concepts. On ‘maternity’, the researcher depicted how nature is considered a source of giving life and existence to the world like women. On 'otherness', the researcher found how nature is marginalized and ignored just like women. In other words, it is shown nature, like women, is ‘other' and secondary in the society. It was shown how nature and culture are related. Besides, it was proved that there is a close relationship between women and nature that one can delve further into. This paper adopted the Eco-feminism approach to explore Shell Shaker, solely filled with Native American settings and issues. So, both nature and the woman of the Native American context were the focus of the study. The researcher showed how the Native American women can be representative of the nature of their ancestral lands and identify with it. The main argument that the researcher intended to study was parallel roles of both women and natural land for Native American. To this purpose, theories and notions of several thinkers were exploited.