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The focus of prior studies has been on introducing different cultulings in Iranian culture; as a result, little attention has been given to their relationship with individual differences and language-related variables. Therefore, to address this gap, the researchers first devised a cultuling competency test to measure individuals’ ability to identify 14 culturally different contexts. They then substantiated the construct validity of the cultuling competency test through CFA, and its reliability was measured using Cronbach’s alpha, suggesting high reliability. Next, the researchers aimed to assess the role of cultuling in individuals’ language aptitude, verbal intelligence, cultural intelligence, and second language (L2) willingness to communicate (WTC). The results indicated that cultuling is a significant predictor of verbal intelligence. It was also found that L2 WTC and cultural intelligence are positively correlated. Finally, the findings revealed that language aptitude has a significant relationship with both cultural and verbal intelligence.

Since reflective practice is regarded as a significant professional learning tool for teachers to change, modify, and reform their educational practices, it is important for teachers to move towards a more creative use of reflection. Thus, imaginative and creative reflective practice can serve as a new approach to enhance teaching efficiency, originality, reflectivity, and practicality. Additionally, teachers can utilize Artificial Intelligence (AI) tools to implement reflective practice in creative and imaginative ways to support innovative reflections and address complex teaching challenges. Accordingly, this study employed imaginative and creative reflective practice with a Chat Generative Pre-Trained Transformer (ChatGPT) as a novel AI tool. This study explored how imaginative and creative AI-oriented reflective practice could contribute to the professional development of EFL teachers within a complex educational system. To this end, the perspectives of six novice and experienced EFL teachers were examined through semi-structured interviews, classroom observations, and post-class discussions within a qualitative case study framework. The findings indicated that teachers were able to transform and reform their belief systems by learning new concepts, reflecting on their practices, innovating knowledge and practice, and initiating change through imaginative and creative AI-oriented reflective practice. The study concludes with suggestions on how to engage language teachers in imaginative and creative AI-oriented reflective practices.

This research explores translation dynamics through the innovative lens of chaos theory, focusing on how the butterfly effect manifests in linguistic transfer. By challenging traditional linear translation models, the study demonstrates how seemingly minor initial conditions can generate profound, cascading interpretive consequences across textual landscapes. Adopting a complexity science perspective, among others, the research examines translations of Rumi’s Masnavi and Camus’s L’Étranger to highlight translation’s inherently nonlinear and adaptive nature. The theoretical framework integrates insights from complexity science, poststructuralist theory, and translation studies, offering a sophisticated analytical approach that moves beyond reductive binary conceptualizations. Using purposive theoretical sampling, the study traces how subtle translation choices recursively shape semantic and cultural interpretations. By emphasizing translation’s sensitivity to initial conditions, the research contributes to emerging scholarship that views translation as a complex, dynamic system characterized by intricate interactive processes. Methodologically, the study employs qualitative case analyses to reveal the profound complexity of translation.

Writing assessments in the EFL context today have put a great concern on language acquisition and proficiency testing. However, diverse techniques and practices require a comprehensive synthesis to better understand trends, gaps, and best practices. This study reviews and synthesizes prior research on writing assessments in EFL contexts. It examines the dominant assessment approaches, their effectiveness, and their impact on EFL learners' writing skills holistically. The study employs a meta-synthesis approach. Fifty journal articles indexed by Scopus, ERIC, Crossref, Google Scholar, DOAJ, Copernicus, and other indexing databases between 2018 and 2024 were selected as the data to review in this study. The data selection was conducted to ensure the relevance and quality of the literature reviewed. The results include a variety of assessment practices such as teacher feedback, self-assessment, peer-assessment, blended or collaborative assessment, automated writing evaluation (AWE), and artificial intelligence in EFL writing settings. The study also concludes that, despite the diversity and complexity of writing assessments in EFL contexts, there is a strong need for more standardized and contextually valid assessment practices. Effective assessments align with instructional goals and offer meaningful feedback that supports student learning. The study recommends developing comprehensive assessment frameworks tailored to specific EFL contexts, providing more training for educators in assessment literacy, and conducting further research into the long-term impact of various assessment practices on the writing development of EFL learners.

The ability to write from sources or integrated writing is considered an essential competency in academic and professional settings. This study investigated the possible interactions between motivation regulation strategies, integrated writing strategy use, and integrated reading-listening-to-write (RL2W) performance of Iranian EFL learners. A convenient sample of 31 learners from an EFL essay writing course participated in the study. The required data were collected based on the learners' performance in an integrated writing task and their responses to motivation regulation and integrated writing strategies questionnaires. The correlation analysis indicated a positive moderate relationship between motivation regulation strategy use and integrated writing performance of the learners, while integrated writing strategy use showed a low relationship with these constructs. Multiple regression analysis also indicated that among the subscales of motivation regulation strategy use in writing, interest enhancement had a significant contributory power to account for the integrated writing performance of the learners. MANOVA results also pointed to the superiority of high writing proficiency learners in motivation regulation strategy use compared to their less competent counterparts, but there were no significant differences between high and low groups in integrated writing strategy use, which confirmed the importance of quality of strategy use to mere quantity. As a subsidiary aim, the challenges learners encountered in the integrated writing process were identified by analyzing their responses to a reflection question and examination of their written essays. They were identified as linguistic, psycholinguist, and academic skill problems.

This study examines collegiality among Iranian EFL teachers by developing and validating the EFL Teacher Collegiality Scale (ETCS) through Mokken Scale Analysis (MSA). Collegiality, which we often understand as mutual respect, teamwork, and shared responsibility, is widely acknowledged as essential for promoting positive school environments and supporting teachers’ well-being. Specifically, collegiality supports teacher well-being, operationalized as job satisfaction, lower emotional exhaustion/burnout, and stronger professional efficacy. In Iran’s educational context, specific challenges make promoting teacher collaboration more difficult. To fill an important gap in the existing research, this study introduces a culturally adapted, reliable instrument designed to measure collegiality within this context. A cross-sectional survey using a 30-item ETCS was administered online to collect data from 170 teachers from various educational backgrounds. The ETCS is organized into three main areas: collaborative practice, professional support and mentorship, and shared professional development. The development process of the ETCS instrument involved expert review and back translation. Analysis showed that the scale has strong scalability and internal consistency, with high Mokken H coefficients across all subscales. The findings indicate that strong collegiality boosts teacher satisfaction, supports retention, and builds professional networks. Finally, this study provides practical strategies and a validated tool to improve EFL teacher collaboration and highlights online collegiality in remote or hybrid settings as a key topic for future research.

Understanding and producing relative clauses (RCs) presents significant challenges for second language learners, particularly when L1 and L2 relativization strategies differ. This study investigated the effect of Persian (L1) on resumptive pronoun (RP) usage in English RCs by Iranian EFL learners (N = 90 English Literature and Translation Studies majors), examining the Noun Phrase Accessibility Hierarchy Hypothesis (NPAHH). The study had two primary objectives. First, we hypothesized that lower-proficiency learners would demonstrate more negative transfer. Participants were categorized into high- and low-proficiency groups using the Oxford Placement Test. Results revealed significant between-group performance differences, though error patterns based on the RC head's grammatical function were similar across groups. Both groups showed highest accuracy for object-function RCs, suggesting strong L1 influence. Second, testing the NPAHH revealed that learners (regardless of proficiency) exhibited lowest error rates for object-position RCs, followed by subject, complement, and genitive positions. This pattern partially aligns with but does not exactly match the NPAHH's predicted difficulty hierarchy (subject > object > complement > genitive). The findings highlight how L1 transfer interacts with universal accessibility constraints in RC acquisition.

In the postmodernism era, considering the new technological facilities, researchers are trying to improve the traditional learning process by presenting some new learning models. One of these models, called blended learning, tries to present special ways and solutions to blend synchronous and asynchronous learning. The flipped classroom, subcategorized in this model, reverses the traditional classroom formats. This study investigates the role of this model in EFL learners’ perceptions of class activities and their language achievement. In doing so, two classes in a high school, 10th grade, were selected as the participants. In the experimental group, the flipped learning approach was implemented through the creative software, developed by the researchers. The software was designed based on the book that students were supposed to study that semester. The software framework was Storyline which is a suitable software for creating interactive courses. Learners’ perceptions were also measured by using the translated version of the 'Students Perceptions of Classroom Activities' scale. The results revealed that the flipped learning approach could account for over 70 percent of Choice perception, about 50 percent for Challenge, and 10 percent for Joy perception. The results also demonstrated significant impact of flipped learning on language achievement. The results of this study would help instructors and practitioners to use technology in their teaching program and be optimistic about its amazing results in their learners’ outcomes.

Abstract The present study developed a model of L2 speaking proficiency investigating how lexical sophistication, lexical diversity, syntactic sophistication, syntactic complexity, and cohesion are associated with holistic scores of L2 speaking proficiency employing structural equation modeling (SEM). A corpus of 419 monologues delivered by Iranian EFL learners was compiled and rated to develop the model. Based on the overall scores, the corpus was divided into independent (B1 and B2) and proficient (C1 and C2) users. The results of SEM analysis revealed that the developed L2 speaking proficiency model had an acceptable fit, with partial generalizability across independent and proficient users. Structural regression analysis showed that lexical diversity, lexical sophistication, syntactic sophistication, cohesion, and the indirect effect of syntactic complexity through lexical sophistication explained 34% of the variance in L2 speaking proficiency in descending order of importance. However, their relative importance changed depending on proficiency level. Based on the results, while lexical, syntactic, and cohesive features are sound predictors of L2 speaking proficiency, they function differently across proficiency groups. These findings offer valuable insights for improving speaking proficiency assessment by showing that lexical sophistication, lexical diversity, syntactic sophistication, syntactic complexity, and cohesion do not contribute equally to overall L2 speaking proficiency, and their order of importance varies across proficiency levels. Therefore, prioritizing indicators of L2 speaking proficiency in assessment frameworks based on their importance in each proficiency level can add to the validity and reliability of speaking assessments.

Speech act theory is a significant issue in comprehending the intricate dynamics of human communication, acting as a guiding light in understanding how language is used to perform actions beyond the literal meanings of words. While traditional frameworks have presented valuable perceptions in classifying speech acts, the evolving nature of communication requires reconsidering and expanding these conventional approaches. The researchers of the current study proposed an innovative framework for speech act classifications, one that exceeds traditional boundaries and embraces the nuanced complexities of modern discourse. Based on seminal works by Austin (1962) and Searle (1969), and also by considering important research by Grice (1975), Levinson (1983), and emerging perspectives represented by Verschueren (1999) and Sbisa (2002), the researchers of this study critically assess current classifications, identifying essential challenges and opportunities in speech act analysis. The proposed framework introduces other categories such as Metaplocutionary Acts, Interlocutionary Acts, and Negotiation Acts, offering a more comprehensive and context-sensitive approach to understanding speech acts. Through interdisciplinary collaboration and empirical validation, the researchers of this study aim to refine and apply this framework across diverse linguistic and cultural contexts, thereby paving the way for a more nuanced and dynamic comprehension of human communication.

Based on Shulman's (1986) concept of Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK), Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) emerged and became a helpful framework for comprehending the objectives of using technology in pre-service teacher training programs. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate Iranian pre-service EFL teachers’ (PSEFLTs) perceptions towards their TPACK regarding their gender and academic year of study. To this aim, 254 Iranian PSEFLTs across various academic years of study filled out a 39-item EFL TPACK questionnaire developed by Baser et al. (2016). The questionnaire included seven categories: Content Knowledge (CK), Pedagogical Knowledge (PK), Technology Knowledge (TK), PCK, Technological Pedagogical Knowledge (TPK), Technological Content Knowledge (TCK), and Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPCK). Based on the collected data, which were subjected to the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, descriptive statistics, t-tests, one-way ANOVA, and post-hoc analysis, it was found that PSEFLTs generally held mildly favorable perceptions towards their TPACK. Notably, the lowest mean score was observed for the TK component, while the component with the highest mean score was the CK component. In terms of the gender effect, statistically significant differences were found in the TK and TPCK dimensions, where males outscored females in both TK and TPCK and females outscored males in CK. Furthermore, an examination of the relationship between participants' TPACK and their academic years of study manifested a statistically significant difference primarily between freshmen and seniors. The results are expected to encourage curriculum planners to develop PSEFLTs’ training programs by integrating technology courses into the ELT curriculum.

Neuroimaging has a substantial pedagogical advantage when applied to language learners who are experiencing cognitive procedures during educational settings. Among such learners are L2 learners who may encounter new experiences that neuroimaging may be able to clarify. The purpose of this study is to investigate whether neuroimaging tools are capable of revealing more information about the experience of L2 learners. A systematic review of the literature on the use of neuroimaging in the context of L2 learning is presented in the study. According to a comprehensive search of numerous known databases, 19 articles met the criteria for extensive analysis. The results of the analysis indicate that neuroimaging tools can be used to reveal brain function during L2 learning. Furthermore, it may enable us to uncover brain function during the learning of L2 skills and its neural responses to them. Researchers have also mentioned the challenges in the implementation of neuroimaging tools in L2 procedures. In addition to presenting the testimonies found in the literature, it is emphasized that neuroimaging in L2 learning remains relatively unknown.

The use of portfolios as a tool for assessment in educational settings has attracted significant attention in recent years due to its potential to capture multifaceted aspects of student learning. This study investigates students' perceptions of portfolios as an assessment tool, examining their experiences, attitudes, and beliefs towards its effectiveness in assessing their learning progress and achievements. Additionally, the study explores the influence of factors such as prior exposure to portfolio assessment, instructional support, and personal learning styles on students' perceptions. The research examined students’ responses to portfolio-based assessments over three academic years, from 2020 to 2023. The respondents were third-year elementary education students enrolled in the Faculty of Education at the public University of Gjakova, Kosovo, where the research was conducted. Additionally, the study incorporated a focus group consisting of five English language teachers to examine both the advantages and disadvantages of portfolio assessment, as well as the challenges associated with evaluating students through this method. A qualitative research approach was employed, utilizing qualitative analysis for the questionnaire responses and a descriptive approach for the data collected from teachers. The analysis of student outcomes yields several insights into portfolio-based assessment. The findings suggest that this assessment method enables a more convenient preparation process, as students have ample time, a supportive environment—such as their homes—and the flexibility to engage in learning according to their unique preferences and styles. According to teachers, the portfolio is perceived as straightforward in its appearance, yet it presents significant complexities in terms of implementation and assessment. The integration of portfolio assessment in curriculum design and the provision of structured guidelines and support could be underlined as practical implications and recommendations to enhance the effectiveness of assessment-based portfolios in educational settings.

This study examined the personal, professional, and contextual barriers to teacher identity (TI) within English language institutes and their strategies to navigate them. The study used a multiple case study approach with semi-structured interviews for data collection. It involved four Iranian English institute teachers aged 22 to 30, with varying degrees of education: two holding a B.A., one an M.A., and one a Ph.D. Data analysis utilizing thematic analysis revealed that insecurity, self-doubt, perfectionism, and challenges in balancing personal and professional lives were personal barriers to TI. Moreover, professional barriers such as excessive workloads, strict adherence to academic norms, and stress from peers and superiors could hinder TI development. Furthermore, contextual barriers, including hierarchical cultures, top-down decision-making, and rigid institutional policies, could restrict TI development. The findings also revealed some patterns among these barriers. The results showed that contextual barriers exacerbate professional barriers. Moreover, professional barriers exacerbate personal barriers. Teachers often try to navigate barriers by seeking feedback, engaging in professional development, advocating for their needs, holding meetings, using dead times, focusing on strengths rather than weaknesses, accepting faults and shortcomings, promoting shared leadership, prioritizing self-care and work-life balance, expanding knowledge through reading more, setting realistic goals, recommending solutions, being more flexible, involving and engaging students, motivating students, taking assessment as learning perspective, etc. The study's findings have implications for teachers, teacher training programs, and educational policy.

The integration of AI in educational contexts has been a heated debate among scholars. Despite the important role of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in foreign language education, exploring English as a foreign language (EFL) teachers’ voices regarding their motivation to use AI in foreign language education has received scant attention. Therefore, this study explores the motivational factors influencing the adoption of AI in foreign language teaching through the lens of self-determination theory (SDT). Qualitative data were collected through semi-structured interviews from six EFL teachers in the context of Saudi Arabia. The study identified several key sub-themes within the broader motivational factors of relatedness, autonomy, and competence from the SDT framework. Regarding competence, participants emphasized the role of AI in enhancing their ability to deliver personalized instruction and manage their classrooms more efficiently. For relatedness, the sub-theme of mutual support and community building emerged as crucial, highlighting the importance of collaboration between teachers and students in AI adoption. In the context of autonomy, self-initiated professional development was prominent, reflecting teachers’ active efforts to stay updated on AI technologies. Teachers felt that mastering AI tools not only improved their competence but also enabled them to adapt AI-based solutions to meet students' individual needs. However, they also noted the challenge of ensuring that AI tools complement rather than replace critical pedagogical skills, highlighting the need to maintain a balance between using AI for efficiency and preserving essential human elements like creativity and critical thinking.