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The phonological status of word-initial glottal stops in Persian has been a subject of controversy. Particularly, researchers hold divergent views on whether the glottal stop functions as a phoneme in word-initial positions. These perspectives can be categorized into three main positions: (1) glottal stops are phonemes in all occurrences (Samareh, 1985; Windfuhr, 1979); (2) word-initial glottal stops are phonemes only in loanwords, especially from Arabic (Bijankhan, 2018; Haghshenas, 1991; Jam, 2019; Kord-Zaferanloo-Kambozia, 2003); and (3) word-initial glottal stops are not phonemes in Persian (Jahani, 2005; Majidi & Ternes, 1999; Sepanta, 1973). In this paper, a critical review of previous findings is provided along with new insights and neglected evidence relevant to the underlying representations of words with glottal stops. Based on these considerations, the paper leans towards the position that glottal stops function as phonemes in all positions regardless of occurrence in loanwords or native words. It also calls for a revision of previous research, emphasizing the importance of non-acoustic aspects in exploring the phonological functions of word-initial glottal stops.

This study was an attempt to see whether the instruction of pragmatic markers in virtual vs. face-to-face classroom settings had any effect on Iraqi EFL learners’ speaking ability. It also attempted to examine the intervening effects of some factors including age (teenagers in the language institute vs. adults in the university), gender, social class, and the learners’ English language proficiency levels.  To achieve these purposes, a group of 224 Iraqi EFL learners at a university and a private language institute in Kufa, Iraq passing conversation courses were selected and randomly divided into four groups. The two experimental groups (both in university and language institute settings) received instruction on pragmatic markers in online vs. face-to-face conversation classrooms while the two control groups (in university and language institute settings) did not receive instruction on pragmatic markers in online vs. face-to-face conversation classrooms. An English language speaking test was given to the learners to assess their oral performance before and after the treatment. The test was randomly selected from IELTS speaking tests. For the teenagers in the language institute, a simplified speaking task was designed based on IELTS criteria for assessing speaking performance. The results indicated that generally those who received pragmatic instruction outperformed those who did not receive such kind of instruction and the participants in face-to-face classrooms outperformed their virtual counterparts in terms of speaking ability. The study also examined the intervening effects of some social and personal factors including age, gender, social class and level of language proficiency. Based on the findings of this study, the male participants and the students from higher proficiency levels outperformed females and their lower proficiency counterparts in terms of speaking ability. However, they did not show any differences with regard to age and social class. This study offers important implications for EFL teachers, learners and material designers, with regard to the promising effect of face-to-face instruction of different pragmatic features of language through speech acts on learners’ speaking skill. 

Due to the current COVID-19 pandemic, all face-to-face instruction at higher education institutions (HEIs) worldwide has been suspended. Therefore, many institutions and universities relied on online learning to continue the instruction process. The perceptions of teachers and students who went through this experience can provide useful information regarding the success of the online instruction. Thus, the purpose of this study was to investigate the perceptions of teachers and students during the COVID-19 pandemic in Iran. Additionally, it aimed at exploring the main advantages and disadvantages of online instruction during this time. To this end, 250 English language teachers and students were selected from different English language institutes and universities in Iran. Drawing upon Khan et al.’s (2021) questionnaire and an open-ended question, this study showed that both teachers and students had positive perceptions towards online learning and teaching during COVID-19 lockdown despite the fact that some students had not the necessary facilities and infrastructure for online classes. Furthermore, this study showed that validity, reliability, construction, administration, and effectiveness of online assessment was a major concern for both teachers and students. Besides, both groups expressed the benefits of online instruction more than its drawbacks. The results of this study have implications for higher education teachers, and stakeholders to get a better understanding of the students’ and teachers’ perception toward online instruction

The present investigation attempted to see if using literary texts could lead into any change in learners' interest or perception toward literature. The research also attempted to find students' perception on using literary content in language learning based on learners' opinions. The investigation finally sought to discover the way learners' interest in literature changed as a result of using literary texts as the instructional content. The Research employed a mixed-method design to answer the questions proposed in the study. After analyzing data through t-test, Gain-score comparison and thematic analysis, the results showed that using literary content worked as useful and constructive for learners in language learning and life objectives. The results further confirmed that learners' interest level improved positively due to using simplified literary texts, whereas, the positive role could not be seen in using authentic literary content. Accordingly, content selection from literature along with considering learners' life needs are able to make language learning more attractive to learners. The results also support that developing newer books with literary texts can provide learners with different knowledge like cultural awareness, social knowledge or historical background, which seem to be urgent life needs in today's modern society.

The purpose of this research was to evaluate whether or not Artificial Intelligence (AI) tools are effective in improving language pragmatics training for university students in Iraq who have an intermediate level of English proficiency. The research made use of a mixed-methods approach, which combines qualitative and quantitative data in order to investigate how artificial intelligence affects the acquisition of pragmatic competence (RQ1), learner perceptions (RQ2), and the effectiveness of AI in comparison to traditional methods (RQ3). The results of the study indicated that the intervention including the AI tool resulted in a statistically significant improvement in pragmatic competence scores when compared to the conventional method of instruction. Learners who were part of the experimental group also reported having favorable impressions of the effectiveness of the artificial intelligence tool. They highlighted the program's emphasis on practical application, as well as its interactive features and individualized feedback. This research makes a contribution to the field of language instruction by demonstrating the potential of artificial intelligence to develop a more interactive and individualized learning experience for pragmatics, which will ultimately lead to improved communication skills among students.

The current study explored the effect of storytelling and translation techniques on learning proverbs among female Iranian EFL (English as a Foreign Language) learners in online classes, which came into vogue after corona pandemic, and the attitudes of the learners toward proverb learning. In order to do these, participants who were 30 female high school students studying in Iranshahr whose homogeneity as pre-intermediate learners was checked via the Nelson Proficiency Test were assigned to two groups: a storytelling group, and a translation group; each group containing 15 students. Treatment lasted seven sessions and it included 50 English proverbs chosen based on the frequency of their use in Google search. In each session, the participants of experimental groups were engaged in learning seven English proverbs. The translation group were presented with L1 equivalents of the proverbs; the storytelling group were presented with a funny story about each proverb. An attitude questionnaire and a test of proverbs were applied prior to and after the treatment. The results of the paired t-test indicated that both storytelling technique and translation were effective in improving learners’ knowledge of L2 (second Language) proverbs. The results of the t-test depicted that there were no statistically significant differences between the two groups in the post-test. These findings have implications for material developers, L2 instructors, and L2 learners about the importance of the use of L2 proverbs.

Though applied linguistics has observed a rise in language acquisition investigations within the complex dynamic systems theory (CDST) paradigm, the majority of research endeavors have been centered on the development of learners' first language (L1) or second language (L2). Limited research exists on multilinguals’ L3 acquisition/development, with even fewer studies considering the development of learners’ speaking skill in L2, and L3. The present study aimed to address these gaps by adopting a CDST approach to analyze the development of fluency, accuracy, and complexity in L2 (English) and L3 (French) speaking skills among five undergraduate Iranian EFL junior students of Translation Studies at Jahrom University over one academic year. The students were at an intermediate level in English language and their French language proficiency was at the beginner level. The participants’ speaking ability in both languages was closely examined and analyzed regarding their development of fluency, accuracy, and complexity within a quantitative design. Findings depicted that the aspects were developed in non-linear, chaotic, and emergent patterns in multilingual learners’ L2 and L3 speaking skill. Moreover, the findings indicated that these elements in multilingual learners' speaking were interconnected and influenced each other over a period of time. The discoveries have some significant implications for L2 and L3 language teaching, such as creating flexible learning and teaching environments, fostering emergent behavior in language classrooms, encouraging learners to have a self-organizing and autonomous role in language learning, having sensitivity to the diverse needs of learners, and fostering a collaborative learning environment.  

Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) have significantly transformed the education system in recent decades, providing new opportunities for both teachers and students and improving the quality of education. The purpose of this study is to analyze the opinions of foreign language teachers regarding the impact of ICTs in the classroom, the training acquired and the challenges faced during the teaching-learning experience. A study with a quantitative, non-experimental, cross-sectional, and descriptive approach was carried out using a questionnaire as a data collection instrument. The final sample consisted of 117 foreign language teachers from bilingual schools of Primary and Secondary Education in Andalusia (Spain), both public and subsidized/semi-public. Specifically, 66.6% are female and 33.4% male. The results indicate that teachers believe in the positive impact that ICTs may have on the teaching-learning process, and feel highly motivated in carrying out their work through ICTs. However, teachers continue to express the need for further and continuous training and highlight the importance of technical support and how the lack of resources can undermine the quality of foreign language teaching. 

Becoming one of six official United Nations languages, English proficiency has become a prominent requirement for students and professionals entering international education and/ or careers, as assessed through standardized English proficiency tests. English learners conducted varied procedures to pursue the minimum test score criteria, including joining an English test preparation program. This study investigates the effect of English test preparation as an intervention on EFL learners' English language proficiency performance by reviewing the effect sizes found by previous studies using meta-analysis of pre-post contrasts. A total of 20 selected studies, according to the criteria determined by researchers between 2018-2021 and conducted in various countries, were collected from Google Scholar sources and included in the research. English language proficiency performance, as indicated by their test scores, is independent of the language skills tested with a p-value of less than 0.05 (p-value = 0.00) and an average weighted effect (M) that appears to be 0.859. This research implies that adequate test preparation is essential for English language learners who wish to achieve the desired level of proficiency. Apart from the ability to write, speak, and read, the psychological aspects of students are also important to prepare before they take the intended test

While the potential of Dynamic Assessment (DA) and its variants (Computerized Dynamic Assessment (CDA) and Group Dynamic Assessment (GDA)) for EFL classrooms has been recognized, there is a lack of research on its practical implementation compared to the well-established field of Summative Assessment (SA). Thus, the objective of this qualitative study was to investigate the evolving perspectives of EFL teachers concerning the integration of DA and SA within their classrooms. To achieve this, 50 EFL teachers in Iran were recruited through convenience sampling to complete an online open-ended questionnaire. The primary purpose was to explore their familiarity with, perceptions of practicality for, and preferences regarding DA and SA. Additionally, a sub-group of volunteer participants was requested to provide narratives detailing their real-world classroom experiences using DA and SA. Content and thematic analysis of the responses revealed that the majority of participants were familiar with DA, with the most commonly employed type being GDA. While DA was predominantly viewed as a form of feedback, SA was still seen as a more formal means of classroom assessment. Consequently, it is highly recommended that EFL teachers exploit the advantages of both assessment approaches in order to ensure more equitable decisions concerning students' abilities.

This paper investigates the conceptual and cognitive motivations behind anger-related Hindi idioms. The study is based on 40 idiomatic expressions on anger curated from diverse sources, including websites, books, and native speakers’ intuition. The study employs the theoretical framework of Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT) by Lakoff and Johnson (1980) for the analysis of these linguistic expressions. For the identification of conceptual metaphors, Metaphor Identification Procedure (MIP) by Pragglejaz Group (2007) was employed After analysis, nine conceptual metaphors and an equal number of conceptual metonymies were found in the chosen idiomatic expressions. Conceptual metaphors such as “ANGER IS FLUID,” “ANGER IS A WILD ANIMAL,” and “ANGER IS A STORM,” as well as conceptual metonymies like “REDDENING OF THE FACE” and “GNASHING OF TEETH,” were identified, among others. The findings reveal that there is a coherent conceptual organization underlying these idioms, predominantly characterized by conceptual metaphor and metonymy. The study can give us insight into the cultural conceptualisation of anger expressions in Hindi which can contribute the broader landscape of emotion research from Cognitive linguistic point of view and also in teaching-learning of Hindi idioms.

Since beliefs and emotions are involved in teachers’ daily professional life, this case study aimed to reveal the beliefs of pre-service teachers (PST) emotional strategies and the reasons underlying their beliefs during teaching practicum. Six PSTs from three Indonesian universities who conducted teaching practicum in three different school areas participated in this study. Fruitful data were gained from classroom observations, in-depth interviews, and journal entries. The findings reveal that Indonesian PSTs believe designing both a lesson plan and a second one is significant in preparing the classroom situation appropriately for students. These strategies can improve their self-confidence and motivation and help them regulate down emotions to respond to spontaneous incidents. They also believe in cognitive strategies that the students' problems and the teacher's weaknesses provoke the students' misbehavior. To up-positive emotion regulation, they believe in fake strategies showing their excitement and enthusiasm in teaching through verbal and nonverbal cues. However, hiding and avoiding emotions are not suitable due to harmful impacts. Hence, teachers have to unveil their emotions in appropriate situations. Teachers' attention to all students is pivotal for learning and growth. Thus, PSTs' emotional competence must be enhanced, for they have the ability to identify, analyze, regulate, and express emotions in the proper context and situation. The teacher education program must give PSTs full support by including emotional competence as one of the subjects or a part of the course contents to promote positive beliefs on emotion regulation

English as a Foreign Language (EFL) University students usually write in their native tongue and translate it into English using Artificial Intelligence programs. The study evaluated the quality of translations generated by AI in one hand and investigated the impact of Artificial Intelligence Generated Translation (AIGT) on EFL students in another. A human translator and an AI tool were used to translate two sample texts from English into Persian. The texts were given to 30 EFL teachers to examine the quality of AI translations. In addition, 152 students randomly divided into control or experimental groups were exposed to translated texts. Results from an independent t-test showed that there was a negligible difference between the two groups. The qualitative analysis of the interview data that involved 30 participants revealed that language teachers perceived omission, addition, syntax and punctuation errors in AIGT as adequately acceptable, despite their prevalence. However, a majority of the teachers were dissatisfied with AIGT’s accuracy in rendering idiomatic expressions. Based on the results, EFL educators should acknowledge the prevalence and usefulness of AI among students, and aim to incorporate it effectively in their teaching instead of prohibiting its use.

Implicitly biased teaching practices or the unconscious discriminatory actions of teachers create the learning-threatening illusion of being biased in the minds of learners. This study identified the main manifestations of implicitly biased teaching practices in online EFL learning, and then, delved deeper into the factors shaping their manifestations. Participants of the study were 45 intermediate-level EFL learners attending an online course in an Iranian public educational institute. Each participant was required to report on the biased teaching practices manifested during the three-month course. In the end, focused interviews were conducted to identify the contributing factors to their perceptions. Results of the study came up through content analysis indicated that intermediate-level learners perceive implicitly biased teaching practices as micro-assault (underrating) or micro-insult (demeaning) behavior each of which could result in a different reaction and participation pattern among themselves. This study concludes that false expectations, negative comparisons, and the online nature of communication are the main factors determining what learners regarded as biased teaching practices. Moreover, this study rejects the efficacy of micro-invalidation in preventing implicit bias in online learning. This study encourages EFL teachers to address their implicit bias through considering the participation and development patterns of their learners.  

Teacher autonomy (TA), including its conceptualization and multidimensionality, has received increasing attention in the past two decades. Notwithstanding many attempts to measure TA, teachers’ capacity for self-directed professional action (CSDPA) has remained under-researched. To address this gap, this article delved into the status of English as a foreign language (EFL) teachers’ CSDPA by developing and validating a questionnaire based on TA literature and semi-structured interviews with teachers. Employing exploratory factor analysis (EFA), the factor structures of 300 Iranian EFL   teachers’ responses were examined in terms of their CSDPA. The analysis results yielded five factors regarding teachers’ CSDPA, including their capacities for self-directed instructional and curricular activities, self-directed institutional actions, self-directed teacher learning activities, self-directed assessment and collegial negotiation activities, and self-directed relational and ethical actions. The research outcomes suggest implications for language teachers, institute principals, and teacher educators to attend to teachers’ autonomy as a key feature of their professional action.

This study aims to assess the performance of university students through the C-Test and to analyze the extent to which this test is valid in measuring language ability. A standardized C-Test has been created with four brief passages, each containing 20 gaps. The length of each passage varied from 95 to 109 words. Throughout each passage, only the first and last sentences were not changed. The test was taken by 100 students; 39 were male and 61 were female at Al-Nisour University/Department of English in Baghdad, Iraq. The sample consists of two groups. Both groups come from the same school and would receive similar educational input in both cases based on their grade level. The validity and reliability of the C-Test were investigated using various techniques. The study analyzed the performance of Stage 4 and Stage 3 students on the Common Language Proficiency Test in Iraq. The results showed that the test discriminates well between high-ability and low-ability examinees, with no significant difference between the two groups. The Rasch model separation reliability was relatively high, and the data were one-dimensional. The students faced difficulties in guessing the most appropriate words due to their limited English proficiency. The results suggest that developing and implementing this test could significantly improve students' academic achievements in basic foreign language classes in Iraq.