درخت حوزه‌های تخصصی

Minerals in nature are one of the most valuable treasures on the earth, which due to the limitation of these resources on land and its heterogeneous distribution in different countries, has made human beings think about extracting the new resources. The limited mineral resources on land and the heterogeneous distribution of these substances in different countries have made human beings think about extracting and using the resources of other parts of the earth and even other planets. Deep-sea mineral resources can be considered as a reliable alternative to compensate for the limitations of land resources. The developed countries were more concerned with the use of these resources than others because, given the dependence of their economies on third-world mineral resources, the development of offshore resources could mean the liberation of their economies from this dependence. In political and scientific circles, the concept of the common heritage of humanity was gradually introduced, based on which activities related to mining in the deep sea. The method of this research is a descriptive-analytical study using library resources, the study of articles, and a review of environmental treaties and related internet resources. The result of this research shows, that none of these legal systems in the field of responsibility can respond to the challenges independently. This research tries to provide a legal solution by considering the opinions of environmental experts, an executive solution about achieving new financial resources based on combined systems of environmental responsibility.

The attempts will be made to compare and analyze the provisions and clauses of the different charter parties, demonstrate and disclose some of the disputable problems in the standpoint of views of the parties connected to the charter party, which have been existed and encountered during the performance and operation of the contract of affreightment, inter alia, the voyage charter party forms, the incorporated provisions and rider clauses. In this part of the research topic, the utmost attempt has been made to go to the root of the encountered difficulties and disputes. There has been thought of a need for reconsideration and reconciliation of the interpretation of the clauses which appeared to be assumed to lack of global uniformity. The parties to the charter party are the ship-owner and the charterer to whom, inter alia, the obligations, rights, liabilities, and risks are allocated, whereas, the review of the important aspects of the voyage charter party will be considered in due course in details. This piece of work is going to be based on shipping practices and experience of my own sea service and handling of maritime arbitration cases and consultancy for the disputed and claimed cases.

Naval mining technology is one of the tools that have a dual function. And an effective tool in times of peace and crisis as well as during the war that the eighth convention of The Hague in 1907 has regulated the use of contact mines during the armed naval conflict. Nevertheless, pouring sea mines during peace time is a legal choice for governments in the waters and their territorial sea, and even in their international territories. But, dumping at sea in times of peace and in crisis situations is a danger, and in fact, in each of the maritime territories, it is in contrast to freedom and the right to transit, as well as peaceful freedom of movement, which is extremism and the issue in this regard could be a threat to international peace and security. Nevertheless, new mine technologies can somewhat prevent the risks and the obligations of governments, depending on the type of mine, also vary. Therefore, this paper discusses the legitimacy of the use of sea mine technology in peacetime in the light of developments in the international law of the seas and the opinions of the International Court of Justice. And proves the relationship of this kind of technology to ensure the security of the coastal state and pre-crisis will be timely and valuable; this type of strategy and technology within the framework of legal constraints, international law is justifiable. Research method of this paper is analytical-compilation method and data collection method is library-documentary method.

Ensuring defense and security in the international system of disarmament and arms control is one of the most vital areas at the heart of international policy. Defense and security are so closely intertwined that not only do countries seek to increase their defense and security capabilities in order to ensure their security, but also through which they confront potential and actual threats. Defense and security are very important and basic areas that can create deterrence in the light of which security prevails and the harmful consequences of its absence are prevented. The leaders of any society can play an important role in various matters, especially the country's defense-security strategy. Therefore, since most of the military, defense and security affairs of the Islamic Republic of Iran originate from the ideas of the founder of the Islamic Republic of Iran, Imam Khomeini; The need for research and study of their ideas in the field of defense and national security is evident. In this article, as necessary, Imam Khomeini's defense-military views and ideas will be discussed, specifically in the field of disarmament and arms control. The main purpose is to answer the basic question: "What was the goal and meaning of Imam Khomeini's approach to disarmament and arms control?" The temporary answer is that Imam Khomeini was thinking about weapons of mass destruction, Disarmamently, and Controling the conventional weapons of arms.

India is home to a remarkable variety of religions, and a major challenge that the country faces today is that of conflict between various religious communities. This has taken on menacing forms in recent decades. Incidents of violence between Hindus and Muslims, in which often agencies of the state play a central role in directing anti-Muslim violence, have now become endemic in some parts of the country. This form of communal violence, generally instigated by right-wing Hindu forces, is sought to be given religious sanction and is also projected as a crusade to save the Indian “nation”, which is described and portrayed in Hindu terms. Communal violence and anti-Muslim pogroms in various parts of the country have resulted in mounting human rights violations, particularly of marginalised communities such as the country’s Muslims, who number more than 150 million.

Today, there is a need for a new approach toward the sea and sea-based sustainable development. Alfred Mahan, by presenting the theory of Sea Power, made the politicians pay special attention to the sea and navigation. To present the theory of Maritime Civilization, a theory building framework was used. The framework includes three steps, from the Descriptive stage (Observation, Categorization, and Association), to the Normative stage, based on the theoretical basis of the research. The present study, while confirming the positive points of the Alfred Mahan''s Sea Power theory, criticized the nature of thoughts behind the theory. By extracting the necessary terms from literature and research background confirming the positive and negative points of the Sea Power theory and by considering the framework of theory building in Management Science research, a theory called "Maritime Civilization" was presented instead of the Sea Power theory. The results of the study indicated that Sea Power theory has good positive points, however, Alfred Mahan''s approach to the sea is an authoritarian and domineering perspective that, firstly, contradicts values and ethics; secondly, the present discussions about sustainable development and the Green Environment criticize the Sea Power theory. Thus, the theory of Maritime Civilization is presented, according to which the maritime civilization is a civilization in which the intellectual, scientific, industrial, social, economic and political movements are created in conjunction with the sea and the marine environment. Using a set of capacities and resources, this civilization seeks to enjoy a sustainable sea exploitation in order to turn the human and the marine community into a peaceful community. This is a preliminary theory, and for assessing its validity, the views of five experts from the Marine Science universities were used, which necessitates further investigation by other researchers in the future

Localization of sustainable development goals could reasonably provide a framework to how local and regional governments meet their requirements in respective jurisdictions. Due to the importance of the environment protection in the process of the “sustainable development”, it is crucial for the states to include sustainable development goals in their regulations, laws and policies. In this perspective, presenting new approaches is utterly requested to protect the maritime environment of the Persian Gulf from destruction and degradation. Undoubtedly, there are a number of challenges and obstacles regarding the localization of SDGs in this region that the present paper will examine the strategies for addressing them. In fact, if environmental rules are internalized as a part of the domestic legal system, they will become more prominent and will be more respected. For this reason, one of the fundamental goals of this paper is to elaborate a suitable methodology to explain and design localized indicators of development sustainability at the regional level of the Persian Gulf. The main goals of sustainable development are to attain durable development in maritime areas in which efforts are made to provide a balance between economy, community and the marine environment.

The northern shores of Iran, especially the shores of Mazandaran province, have long been a popular destination for tourists. Sea and coastal tourism is one of the most popular forms of tourism in today's world.This research tries to study and analyze the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of the strategy on coastal tourism. This research method is descriptive-analytical and is formed like a field method. Given the importance of the maritime tourism industry, careful study and analysis of the factors affecting the development of this industry importance. Influential factors and components such as security, marketing and technology have been analyzed on the development and prosperity of tourism at sea, as well as short-term, medium-term and long-term operational plans for the development of maritime tourism. Security was considered to be the most important and fundamental principle in the development of tourism development strategy in the world Statistical Society due to the Morgan table so that assuming the maximum population of Statistical (384) people as a sample were chosen. The results show that the Coastal tourism of Mazandaran province In terms of strategic location and the internal and external matrix is located in the Conservative area؛ in other words it can take advantage of opportunities in the external environment in coastal tourism by emphasizing on sports activities that can show the weaknesses of internal problems better. That means that in the outside there are very good opportunities to promote coastal tourism with an emphasis on sports activities. However, because of weaknesses in the domestic environment (organization), these opportunities cannot be exploited.

Western discussions of human rights have led to the coalescence of two distinct positions regarding the fundamental, inalienable liberties that citizens should be able to enjoy as a matter of principle. The first, commonly known as the cosmopolitan perspective , asserts that one set of basic human rights is valid for all societies. The other claims that citizens of different societies may possess different sets of human rights, albeit ones that any thoughtful person would acknowledge to be essentially decent and appropriate to the cultural and historical circumstances of the community at hand. Among a great many prominent cosmopolitan theorists, David Held stands out as the most consistent and vociferous champion of a universalist conception of human rights. Arguably the most influential proponent of distinct packages of rights for various social milieux is John Rawls, whose controversial notion of the Law of Peoples explicitly calls on liberal societies to tolerate, if not actually respect, alternative ways in which a minimal cluster of basic rights might be articulated. This paper demonstrates first that these two, generally opposed poles of the debate over human rights have moved much closer to one another than one might expect.

All various functions of the International Maritime Organization (IMO) can be categorized into two types: legislation and regulation. IMO’s regulatory function includes different processes with various objectives, principles, and mechanisms. This study investigates one of the main IMO regulatory tools, namely, the Mandatory Audit Scheme of its Member States, by studying its objectives, principles, and processes. In general, this regulatory tool has evolved in the historical course of its formation, transforming from a self-reporting tool to a voluntary and then a mandatory one. The Mandatory audit process is also performed based on specific principles. Accordingly, each flag, coastal, and port state has unique responsibilities in addition to their general duties. Overall, the tool contributes to enhancing accountability of IMO Member States regarding their obligations under IMO Conventions. Moreover, it helps the governments identify problems regarding law enforcement as well as applicable maritime safety and environmental standards, including issues that have helped IMO develop its capacity to meet its objectives.

The world witnessed a change in the arrangement of international actors after the Second World War and the rise of international organizations in the international landscape. The International Maritime Organization (IMO) was one of these entities, acting as the UN specialized agency in maritime affairs. This study mainly aims at reviewing the regulatory role of the IMO, particularly the Port State Control (PSC) regime, by addressing its concept, as well as the legal basis and the control procedures. This mainly descriptive–inductive study describes and analyzes the legal bases of the PSC. Generally, IMO is identified with two types of functions: legislation and regulation. IMO’s regulatory function is reflected in two main tools, namely, the Audit Scheme of its Member States and Port State Control (PSC). With its supplementary nature, PSC is in fact an efficient maritime system for the safety and protection of the marine environment, encouraging states to watch for the safety of ships other than those flying their flags, especially those visiting their ports. This control system has led to an effective and efficient implementation of IMO rules and regulations.