Iran

Purpose- Basically, one of the physical planning patterns in Iran is the rural guidance [Hadi] plan that has been considered in the path of rural development planning since the victory of the Islamic Revolution of Iran. Preparing and implementing rural guidance [Hadi] plans with more than three decades of experience is one of the most fundamental proceedings is executed to enhance the physical development of Iranian villages. The implementation history of these plans over many periods indicates many challenges in the process of preparing, approving and implementing guidance [Hadi] plans. Design/methodology/approach- The main purpose of the present study was to analyze the challenges in the process of preparation, approval and implementation. For this purpose, we interviewed 12 individuals who had a background in conducting the guidance [Hadi] plan. Therefore, in this study, the research method was based on qualitative method and was used to analyze the data collected by MAXQDA software. Finding- The results show that the challenges in the process of preparing the conductor plans are Service description (29.73%), Partnership (33.78%), Organizational and systems (29.73%) and Consultants Characteristics (6.76%). In challenges existing in implementing Guidance [Hadi] plans, 2 main axes are also addressed by the interviewees, including participation and the rules. In the partnership axis, the limited participation of villagers in the implementation of plans with the weight of 100 was more important than other sub-axes. Since the villagers have minimal participation in the two processes of plan preparation and approval, it is, therefore, foreseeable to have limited participation in the process of implementation. Originality/value - This is significant because for the first time, a study is being conducted at this level on the challenges of preparing and implementing a Rural Guidance [Hadi] Plans.  The paper should be of interest to readers in the areas of Middle East & world.

One of the concerns regarding the environment is the pollution caused by the extraction and transportation of oil products. In this regard, paying attention to international oil contracts is crucial. The observance of the principles of environmental law in oil contracts affects reduction of oil pollution, and the role of these contracts in adjusting the behaviors of the parties must be monitored. Insertion of responsibility for compliance with environmental principles in oil contracts means recognition or the possible aggrieved party, determining the pollutant, facilitating the legal process in favor of the aggrieved party, and protecting their rights in regards of receiving compensation or restoration. Determining the guarantee of proper execution for oil pollution in oil contracts, will obligate the parties to use standards that will reduce oil pollution. These standards are the governing principles over the environmental regulations such as the principle of prevention, the principle of public action, the principle of joint responsibility, the principle of transparency, the principle of compensation by the polluter, and the principle of precautionary approach which will be imperative in the document text; their implementation will reduce oil pollution and gradually eradicate it. In this article, using the Descriptive-analytical method, the implementation of oil contracts in the light of environmental standards in US and Iranian law is examined and environmental challenges and solutions to upstream oil contracts are presented.

The Iranian Plateau is, in the late 4th millennium B.C., with Mesopotamia and Egypt the birthplace of writing in the World. We propose here to consider the Proto-Elamite (Early Proto-Iranian) and Linear Elamite (Late Proto-Iranian) scripts, not as two different writing systems, but as the same system at two different chronological stages of evolution. Between 3500 and 1850 B.C., the continuous history of writing in Iran may be consequently understood according to 6 distinct phases (I: 3500-3300 B.C.; II: 3300-3000/2900 B.C.; III: 3000/2900-2300 B.C.; IV: 2300-2000 B.C.; V: 2000-1850 B.C.; VI: after 1850 B.C.).

One of the most critical indicators of one-factor productivity is the labor productivity index. This index has various and broad applications in the dimensions of economic policy. On the one hand, the labor productivity index determines per capita income levels and living standards. On the other hand, efficiency combined with other factors such as capital stock can make technical changes. The issue of how monetary and exchange rate variables affect labor productivity has been of particular importance in recent international studies. Due to the importance of the issue, this study investigates the asymmetric effect of exchange rate and bank facility rates on labor productivity in Iran in 1971-2018. The results of model estimation by self-explanatory method with nonlinear autoregressive distributed lag (NARDL) indicate that in the short and long run, the effect of free-market exchange rates and bank lending rates on labor productivity is asymmetric so that reductions in exchange rates have a significant direct effect on labor productivity and increases are not significant. In addition, increases in bank lending rates have a direct effect and reductions have an adverse effect on labor productivity.

Developments and accomplishments of the newly founded Republic of Turkey in the first half of the 20 th century had long been the focus of Reza Khan, the Pahlavi ruler of Iran. He considered Atatürk and his actions to be a good model for modern life. After ascending the throne, in parallel with the implementation of Western models, he applied the dominant thinking of Turkey about people’s way of life. Emphasis on the role of women, believing that the backwardness of social organization is the reason for the humiliation of women in the society, was closely pursued by Reza Shah as an important policy and as an ideology of his governance. Among special features and components of women's issues are their presence in the social fields, clothing, health, work and financial independence, and their education, which are addressed comparatively. The main question of this article is that despite the policies of Reza Shah's government regarding women, following the example of Atatürk, what similar achievement was made? If not, what were the reasons for this? The present article tries to identify different aspects of Iran and Turkey by using archival documents, newspapers, written sources, historical researches, and descriptive-analytical methods in examining instances of modernization by imitating Turkey. The result confirms the main point that it is not correct to equate the social modernization activities of Reza Shah and Atatürk. The personality structure, the level of knowledge and awareness, and how the two came to power had a different process, and finally, the society's approach to their position in power was also different. Reza Shah's perspective with Atatürk on women's issues and the actions taken by each of them to change the position of women followed different conditions, reactions, and consequences, which in this article is highlighted using a grounded theory and a background study on issues and finally an appropriate analysis is made based on the author's perception.

The growing number of migrants from Iran to the Western World during the past decades represents opportunities as well as challenges for both migrants and host communities. One of the issues that challenge Iranian migrants who move to Western countries is their unrealistic ideas about their presumed destination. This study aims to measure how accurate were the expectations of Iranians about life in Germany before their migration. We conducted two quantitative surveys among Iranians already living in Germany, as well as Iranians who intended to migrate to Germany. Comparing the results of the two sets of data, the study argued that in most cases (74%) the expectations before migration were over-optimistic. In 17% of the cases, they were realistic, and only in some cases (9%), they were under-optimistic. In addition, we found some correlations that suggest that factors such as gender, level of education, the reason for migration, and the preferred source of information of the participants can impact on the accuracy of the expectation.

US- Iran relations were special and strategic ones and after the Islamic revolution and upon suspension of diplomatic ties, these relations were replaced by a sustainable enmity and hate even after four decades. This matter is unique in the history of diplomatic relations. Based on the direct and face to face negotiations between Iran and the United States regarding nuclear issues in the 11th government, the necessity of the analysis of the factors contributing to the continuous conflicts between two countries has attracted the attention of the researchers and scientists in the field of international relations and has posed the question as to why even four decades after Islamic Revolution, the two countries have failed to establish a rational, logical and free from slogan relations. This question can be addressed from various viewpoints including nuclear deal, terrorism, Middle East peace process and human rights. The aim of the present study is to investigate the role of the human rights’ issue and its effect on the US – Iran relations, with a descriptive-analytical manner, hypothesizing that this issue has no noticeable weight and importance in the continuous conflict between two countries .To confirm this hypothesis, human rights situations in Pahlavi era are considered and compared with similar situations in Islamic Republic, and then their contribution to the US – Iran relations is analyzed . A historical - analytical method is used to explain the evidences and findings .

Score decision-making is largely an undocumented process in performance assessment. To conduct a more in-depth cognitive study in scoring, one must ask if these underlying processes can be identified efficiently and objectively. To this end, the present study attempted to shed some light on how Iranian teachers as untrained raters rate speech samples of learners and how their cognition functions in the decision-making process in terms of the scores they assign. A series of monologues were obtained from a group of language learners; afterward, English language teachers were asked to rate them. The raters were asked both to assign a score and provide comments regarding why they assigned a specific score. Having rated the samples, the raters were individually interviewed. The results of the recorded interviews and the comments they had provided on scores were subjected to qualitative analysis like coding and extracting both idiosyncratic and shared features of the raters’ cognition. The results revealed that some of the factors attended to by the raters were both linguistic and relevant to speaking proficiency construct like fluency, accuracy, and complexity. Some other factors influencing the raters while rating were non-linguistic and not directly related to speaking proficiency construct like the tone of voice, personality feature of the testee, etc. It seemed that the untrained raters did not have a clear definition of oral proficiency construct. The implications of the study for rater training programs have been discussed.

This study intends to conduct a systematic qualitative meta-analysis that focuses on research studies into English Language Teaching (ELT) policy in Iran and Singapore. To identify and compare the main features of the studies and also to provide a contemporary picture of the field in Iran and Singapore, 13 articles published between 2010 and 2021 were included in this review. The analysis revealed that Singapore has employed a top-down language policy and utilized a holistic curriculum which has led to an English knowing society. The policies are well articulated and few mismatches were reported in the policies. In addition, the policies are positively perceived by stakeholders, leading to effective implementation of the policies. However, the findings showed that the Iranian top-down policy negatively framed ELT. Moreover, the policies are not well articulated and there are some inconsistencies between the policies and some mismatches between policy and practice. In addition, the analysis revealed that Iranian stakeholders negatively perceived the policies. They believed that the policies have marginalized the role of teachers and their professional judgment. Finally, research gaps for future research studies in ELT policy were highlighted and recommendations were offered.

The purpose of this paper is to focus on examining the impact of conservatism on IPOs underpricing and then examine the role of audit quality as a moderating variable in the relationship between conservatism and IPOs. Based on financial-behavioral theories, analyses are conducted of data from a sample of Tehran Stock Exchange (TSE) listed companies for the fiscal years 2008–2017 (i.e. 230 firm-year observations). Correlation and regression analyses are performed to evaluate possible associations between conservatism and initial public offerings (IPOs) underpricing with regard to audit quality. There is a negative significant relationship between conservatism and IPOs underpricing, i.e., it reduces IPOs underpricing. Also, the research results indicated that the auditing quality cannot moderate the relationship between conservatism and IPOs underpricing in Iran’s stock market. This conclusion may be explained under the winner’s curse theory. Accordingly, informed investors do not request to purchase unattractive stocks, and uninformed investors demand and obtain all the unattractive stocks since there is no competition between informed and uninformed investors. A limitation of this paper is the number of firms, which for future studies needs to be considered. This research is expected to contribute comprehensively to expanding the theoretical foundations and increase audience knowledge of the underpricing of initial public offerings (IPOs). It is also expected that the results of the study will: 1. determine the underpricing of IPOs in Iran during the research period; 2. document the role of conservatism in reducing underpricing of IPOs; 3. potentially prevent inappropriate pricing of new stocks. Furthermore, the findings of this study suggest that the application of financial-behavioral theories calls for more inquiry.

Spatial justice as a new term focuses more on cities, so it is important to address the national scale. Spatial injustice refers to the imbalanced distribution of valuable political, social and economic power, wealth, infrastructures and opportunity resources. From a political geography point of view, spatial injustice can be a threat to the national integrity, national & domestic security and creation of critical areas in the state. The main goal of this paper is Identification and categorization of factors affecting the spatial injustice in Iran. This paper tries to find an answer to the research main question: What are the most important factors affecting spatial injustice in Iran? This study is practical regarding its purpose and in terms of data collection is survey descriptive. Moreover, its data collection is from the questionnaire. First, the dimensions and spatial injustice indicators are distinguished based on the review of the literature, content and comparative analysis of related researches, and interviews with experts. Then using the methodology of modern analytical-interpretive structural modeling (ISM), the relationship between the indicators is determined and analyzed. Finally, the type of variables according to their influence and reception on other variables was identified using MICMAC analysis. Results show that the most important foundations of spatial injustice in Iran based on Interpretive-Structural Modeling Are Inequality in the distribution of power, wealth and opportunities and Theoretical weakness about the spatial justice domain of knowledge

Environmental sustainability and human settlement are tightly intertwined with water. Therefore, water has had a history-maker function throughout the history of ties between human communities and politico-spatial units. Over the past decades, water consumption has increased in parallel with a reduction in the levels of these strategic resources, thereby orientating the hydro politics-based foreign policy of nations, particularly in low-precipitation regions. In this vein, Iraq’s geographical position is such that several seasonal and permanent rivers running in western Iran flow into its western neighbor, providing for water supply security in some eastern regions of that country. Over the past one and a half-decade, drought-stricken Iran has moved to harvest water flowing out across its western borders, which has consequently reduced water inflow into Iraq and stirred up hydropolitical tensions between the two nations. This research aims to identify effective driving forces in transforming hydropolitical tensions to water cooperation between Iran and Iraq. The functional data required for this research has been gathered by the library-survey method (interview and expert forum) to be analyzed with a combined quantitative-qualitative approach and applying structural analysis. The research found that water diplomacy has a strategic role in reducing hydropolitical tensions.

Historically, formalities and diplomatic protocols, as one of the pillars of successful international diplomacy, have played a crucial role in shaping the political currents of the time. This study examines and studies the role and effect of British-Russian rivalries regarding the inefficiency of the Iranian formality system, as well as analyzing the function of these formalities in the relations of this power triangle during the Qajar era, and by means of a historical method and a descriptive-analytical view which is based on documents, travelogues and historical resources of the Qajar era, it seeks to answer the questions of to what extent diplomatic rituals and ceremonies have been effective in the rivalry and emulation of Russian and British governments in Iran? What were the factors that led to the structural weakness of Iran's formalities and its becoming a buffer state in the great game between Russia and Britain? What role did the performance of the Russian and British ambassadors play in Iran's formality relations? It seems that factors such as imitation and competition of the British and Russian ambassadors for Formalities respect caused the role of Formalities in Iran's relations with the Russian and British governments to be not positive and effective. Meanwhile, the performance of the Russian and British ambassadors, the establishment of Formality agreements and the negligence of the Iranian government were not ineffective in shaping formality actions and reactions between the governments

As an academic field in the study of politics through geographic and naturalistic approaches, geopolitics gives various explanations to political phenomena. In addition, security studies are a new sub-branch of international relations that deals with security issues. Geo-security is a new interdisciplinary field of study that deals with the security of geographic relations between countries. It is a sub-concept of geopolitics. In an attempt to analyze geo-security, you can see that it consists of three main concepts: territoriality, conflict, and scarcity. Borrowed from geopolitics, social science, and economics, these concepts emphasize continuum relations of nation-states from war to peaceful settlements. Conceptualization of geo-security necessarily needs to claim that it can make a new understanding of relations among nations. The present research aims to analyze Iran’s foreign policy towards its neighboring countries. The findings not only show all the main issues about Iran’s relations with its neighbors, but also help to manage these relations and make a shift from a conflictual approach to a cooperative one.

The issue of accommodation in tourism destinations is so important that it has been considered in the definition of tourist, as tourist is someone who accommodates at least one night in a place outside his/her usual environment. The importance of this issue will be doubled when we know that successful tourism destinations are those that have the ability to welcome more tourists with longer overnight stay. The existing state of hospitality in Iran and its impact on tourism development were evaluated in the present study using the research method of descriptive-survey. The results show that hospitality industry requires some major factors for growth and prosperity. Facilities required for investment in this sector and the presence of passengers and customers are two major factors. Without tourists, there is no point in continuation of hospitality industry and generally tourism industry. After the Islamic Revolution, hospitality industry was forgotten and didn't consider as an essential industry in the economic structure of the country, but it was regarded as a luxury good. Little attention to tourism sector caused the hospitality industry to face recession. Despite the increase in the total number of accommodation facilities in the country, this increase was insufficient and there were many problems and shortcomings in the management of hotels, especially the high-grade ones. Additionally, the lack of adequate support of relevant organizations put this industry in an impasse. On the other hand, although there are thousands of beds and tourism resorts in the country, only half of the capacity of these hotels and residences is occupied by passengers at the peak time of journeys. This due to the price of hotels which is unaffordable to many people and middle class or poor people prefer to spendless money for accommodation. Hence, domestic tourists are less interested in staying in hotels, motels, suites, and so on, while the number of foreign tourists entering the country has faced with a negative growth over the past few years. Sima Hemmati. Evaluation of the impact of hospitality on tourism development with emphasis on Iran. Life SciЈ 2012:9(3):2660-2666.) (ISSN: 1097-8135).

When the tourists' satisfaction with travel services is discussed, it should be considered the components related to increasing or decreasing satisfaction. To the fullest extent, the expectations of tourists will be met, as tourism and tourist development will be achieved. Tourists usually travel to where they are trusted and confident and feel safe. Providing services, facilities and equipment in these conditions is effective in increasing their satisfaction. The main objective of this research is to assess the satisfaction and level of expectations of German tourists from transportation systems, accommodation facilities (hotels) and professional characteristics of tour guides. The studied subjects in this study were German tourists who traveled to Iran from February 2016 to June 2017. This research is a descriptive-exploratory study. According to the definitions, objectives and questions, the survey methodology and documents are used simultaneously and the documentary method for collecting theoretical information and library studies and a survey method for collecting information Field is used. The researcher-made questionnaire consisted of questionnaires using the Likert spectrum method, which was analyzed by SPSS-16 software. Based on the results of this research, there is a positive and significant relationship between the services provided in residential centers, the quality of transportation services in Iran and the satisfaction of German tourists. Because of their expectations not meeting the quality of services, they prefer not to go back to Iran. But we can provide a suitable platform to motivate the return of tourists to Iran by making changes in the dimensions of quality, cost of services, hotel, driver and tour guides behavior through public and professional education.

Security is the infrastructure of any development. The most important need of any society is providing the security of it and its individuals, which is why putting effort for providing the security and developing its domain is one of the most important goals of countries in international relations realm and their domestic policy. Striving for increasing national security limit is one of the most underlying concerns of the governments. There is a defined relationship between tourism and security development. Developing tourism in countries is only possible in the ones possessing required security. Tourism destinations are widespread in country, and through providing security in these regions, social security coefficient is increased resulting in tourism development. Security is a vital effective factor in attracting tourists to traveling and tourism. A tourist who decides to travel all around the world will dismiss their decision if they feel there is no security in host country.

Tourism has always been important throughout history, but what is now given to this particular dimensional activity is the potential of this activity in the field of employment and sustainable economics. Although tourism has many advantages and potential, there are also disadvantages in terms of moral degradation and the destruction of natural habitats. Bandar Anzali, one of the northern cities of the country, has a lot of tourist attraction that has been a destination for many tourists every year, and eventually it has positive and negative results in this city. The main objective of this study is to analyze the characteristics and capacity of tourism in Bandar Anzali. The research method is based on descriptive-analytic method, which is data collection by desk and field method. Identifying and evaluating these capabilities in terms of weaknesses, strengths, threats and opportunities by studying literature and interviewing experts, and SWOT issues are divided into two categories: internal (including strengths and weaknesses) and external (including opportunities and threats). Therefore, after the formation of the model and the calculation of the geometric mean of the pairwise comparisons of the AHP method, the matrices derived from the collective judgment of the experts entered the Super Decosions software, and the results of hierarchical analysis in the form of software output are obtained from the weight related factors and inconsistency rates of different matrices.