مطالب

Understanding farmers' mental models (MM) is crucial for interpreting their behavior; however, these models, are shaped by technical, economic, and social factors, have often been overlooked. Using a case study from Kangavar County, Western Iran, this study investigates the MM of farmers and experts regarding wheat seed usage and proposes optimization strategies using a mixed-methods approach. Qualitatively, phenomenological analysis of interviews with 16 participants (selected via purposive and snowball sampling) identified five key factors shaping farmers' mental models (MM): work context, climate, experienced risks, available resources, and subjective norms. Experts' rationale for seed recommendations centered on three themes: academic knowledge, professional experience, and user characteristics. Quantitatively, a structured questionnaire administered to a separate sample of 255 farmers (stratified proportional sampling) and 50 experts (complete enumeration) revealed significant disparities. Independent samples t-tests revealed statistically significant differences (p < 0.01) across all major mental model (MM) domains. Responses were initially scored as percentages (0–100) based on item agreement, then standardized to a 100-point scale. Mean scores were substantially higher among farmers in experienced risks (74.02 vs. 15.80), subjective norms (66.24 vs. 18.93), and work context (65.67 vs. 35.30), indicating stronger perceived influence of experiential and social factors. Conversely, experts scored higher on academic knowledge (75.28 vs. 41.71), reflecting greater reliance on scientific evidence.The Delphi method identified and prioritized key strategies for optimizing seed use, with "preparing a suitable seedbed" (weighted average: 0.148) and "using certified seeds" (weighted average: 0.143) ranked highest. These findings underscore the critical gap between farmer and expert models and emphasize the need for targeted interventions that integrate experiential knowledge with scientific evidence to bridge this divide, fostering more sustainable seed usage practices.

Recently, the India-Pakistan conflict has escalated after the Pahalgam terrorist attack. The Indo-Pakistani conflict has been one of the longest running issues in International Politics since World War II. The two countries' nuclear weapon tests in May 1998, as a turning point, have had a profound effect on the conflict. Since then, two views have emerged on the impact of these weapons on the conflict. On the onehand, the followers of the optimistic view have emphasized the stabilizing nature of nuclear weapons, and on the other hand, those who are known for their pessimistic approach have spoken of the possibility of an escalation of the Indo-Pakistani conflict. The purpose of this article is to investigate the consequences, whether positive or negative, of possessing nuclear weapons on India and Pakistan’s bilateral conflict; more precisely, the article focuses on answering the following question: What role have nuclear weapons played in de-escalating the India-Pakistan conflict? An investigation of the events of the last 27 years in India-Pakistan relations, especially its critical points, reveals that nuclear weapons have had an impact on the New Delhi-Islamabad conflict by deterrence and compellence. Adopting a moderate approach (between optimists and pessimists), an attempt has been made to examine the de-escalation of tensions between India and Pakistan over the past 27 years in the shadow of nuclear weapons.

Natasa Nedeski’s Shared Obligations in International Law is a careful, conceptually ambitious monograph that fills an important gap in contemporary international-law scholarship by moving the debate about “shared responsibility” onto the terrain of primary obligations. Building on the SHARES research project, the book develops a positive-law concept of “shared obligations,” offers a systematic typology (most importantly: divisible vs. indivisible shared obligations), and maps the doctrinal consequences of this typology for performance, attribution and the secondary obligations of cessation and reparation. The argument is meticulously argued, richly illustrated with instructive case studies (Nauru, Eurotunnel, the Kyoto commitments, the Marshall Islands cases and others), and closely attentive to the ILC materials and the broader architecture of the law of obligations. The book’s chief value is conceptual clarity: by foregrounding the structure of the primary legal duty the author is able to show—persuasively—that how a duty is shared shapes who can be held responsible, what remedies follow, and how claims should be framed in adjudication. The monograph is essential reading for scholars, judges and practitioners interested in multilateral governance and international responsibility.

Purpose- Islamic countries are generally characterized by rural lifestyles and relatively young populations. Despite the global trends of accelerated urbanization and population aging, the traditional structure of rural settlement in these countries has remained largely unchanged. The present study aims to examine the structural factors influencing food security in Islamic countries by analyzing the extent and distribution of rural populations as the key contributors to food security, as well as the demographic composition and environmental structures that shape agricultural production. Materials, Methods, and Approach- The development strategies of many countries worldwide are based on the quality, efficiency, and spatial distribution of rural populations. The proportion of the rural population in relation to employment distribution across economic sectors and its contribution to gross domestic product (GDP) are of critical importance to policymakers in both developed and developing nations. The research employs a descriptive–analytical method, utilizing reliable international data sources and global organizational statistics. The statistical population includes 51 Islamic countries , and the data are classified according to the characteristics and attributes of the study population within the research topic. Findings- First, Islamic countries generally possess rural structures and youthful populations. Second, significant disparities exist in settlement and rural habitation patterns across Islamic countries. Approximately 60% of the rural population of Islamic countries reside in just six nations -Pakistan, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Nigeria, Ethiopia, and Egypt- whereas in six others- Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, Djibouti, the Maldives, and Brunei Darussalam- the total rural population does not exceed one million people. Finally, the capacity for agricultural production and food security across Islamic countries is generally fragile. Twenty-six countries have less than 5% of arable land, and twenty-seven countries exhibit an average agricultural value-added of less than USD 5,000 per farmer, rendering them effectively food-insecure and dependent on imports.