درخت حوزه‌های تخصصی

In recent years, off-road (4×4) tourism has become one of the most popular forms of nature-based recreation in the forests of Gilan. The combination of forest trails, pristine landscapes, and the thrill of driving through rugged terrain has attracted many visitors to the region. However, the unbalanced development of this tourism activity has led to significant environmental and social challenges. This study aims to examine the environmental and social impacts of off-road tourism in Gilan’s Forest ecosystems and to propose practical strategies for the sustainable management of such activities. A descriptive-analytical approach was adopted, and data were collected through field observations, interviews with local communities, and a review of environmental reports. The findings reveal that off-road driving causes soil erosion, vegetation destruction, noise pollution, and a decline in wildlife population within the forests. From a social perspective, the growing influx of off-road tourists has altered local lifestyles, created cultural conflicts, and reduced community satisfaction with tourism activities. To mitigate these challenges, it is recommended that designated routes be established for off-road vehicles, environmental monitoring systems be strengthened, and educational programs be provided to raise awareness among visitors and local residents. Furthermore, the development of alternative forms of tourism—such as ecotourism and nature-based cycling—can help preserve the environment while fostering positive engagement between tourists and local communities.

Associated petroleum gas (APG) management presents a major environmental, economic, and legal challenge for oil-producing nations. As a byproduct of crude oil extraction, APG is frequently flared or vented, causing extensive greenhouse gas emissions, energy waste, and regional air pollution. Iran, despite its vast hydrocarbon reserves, flares around 17 billion m³ of APG annually—equivalent to 70 million tons of CO₂ emissions—constituting roughly 40 percent of national methane output. The Amak project, launched to curb this practice through technological modernization and institutional coordination, targets a 30 percent reduction in flaring by 2030. Employing a comparative‑analytical legal methodology, this study examines Iran’s APG regulatory framework, assesses the Amak project’s progress, and benchmarks it against exemplary experiences in Norway and Canada. The analysis identifies four interrelated deficiencies: (1) legal conflicts and gaps, notably between the Petroleum Law’s production‑maximization mandate (Article 22) and weakly integrated environmental statutes; (2) weak enforcement, with nominal penalties and limited regulatory access to real‑time flaring data; (3) institutional fragmentation among the Ministry of Petroleum, Department of Environment, and judiciary; and (4) technological and financial constraints under international sanctions. While the Amak initiative has cut flaring by 18 percent regionally, progress remains hindered by these systemic barriers. Comparative insights highlight Norway’s 95 percent flaring reduction achieved through carbon taxation (~ US$85 per ton CO₂), emission quotas, and stringent oversight, and Canada’s IoT‑based “FlareNet” monitoring network ensuring transparency and accountability. To achieve similar outcomes, Iran requires a holistic reform package: integrating environmental objectives within petroleum law, instituting carbon pricing mechanisms, expanding digital monitoring capabilities, strengthening inter‑agency governance, and incentivizing gas‑capture investment. Aligning legal, economic, and technological strategies can transform APG from a waste stream into a sustainable energy asset, advancing Iran’s compliance with the Paris Agreement and its broader sustainable‑development and public‑health ambitions.

The Palestine-Israel conflict is among the most protracted disputes in recent history. Muslims and Jews have been competing for territorial, political and religious claims over the sacred land since the Ottoman Empire. The historical struggle, the establishment of the state of Israel against the wishes of local inhabitants, and Israel’s subsequent oppression and violence against Palestinians has pushed the region in an everlasting crisis, in which numerous regional and international actors are involved. Many proposals have been presented by different actors for a solution; however, neither the Palestinians nor Israelis have accepted the terms of such proposals. The idea of a two-state solution has been backed by different international actors for the lasting peace of this turbulent land, but political leaders of both Palestine and Israel have shown their reservations over this proposal. Leaders from both sides have argued for the one-state solution for many reasons. This article first discusses the existing proposals and efforts for the peaceful settlement of the land. It will then highlight the prospects and opinions of both Israel and Palestine over the status of refugees and their right of return and implementation of a two-state and one-state solution. The article will finally signpost the arguments from both sides for the resolution of the conflict, and suggest some findings by employing elite interviewing.