مطالب

برخی فلاسفه اخلاق استدلال های اخلاقی را از زمره استدلال های نظری می انگارند و نتیجه این استدلال ها را نوعی گزاره یا باور می دانند که صدق و کذب پذیر است و برخی دیگر این استدلال ها را از جنس استدلال های عملی می دانند. این اختلاف نظر درباره تفسیر نظر ارسطو از اخلاق نیز وجود دارد. ریو با تفسیر و بازخوانی آثار ارسطو چنین ادعا می کند که استدلال های اخلاقی، ترکیبی از استدلال های نظری و عملی هستند. ارسطو با بررسی مبادی علوم گوناگون و روش کسب آنها درباره بدیهیات علم اخلاق پژوهش کرده و نشان داده است که می توان گزاره های اخلاق و منطق حاکم بر آنها را مشابه علوم نظری دیگر تحلیل کرد؛ اما دو نکته اساسی این تحلیل را تضعیف می کند: نخست اینکه برهان های علوم نظری دارای نوعی ضرورت هستند؛ درحالی که در اخلاق، چنین ضرورتی دیده نمی شود . دوم اینکه گزاره های علم اخلاق دارای استثنا و به تعبیر ارسطو از نوع «در اکثر موارد» هستند؛ یعنی در اکثر مواقع و شرایط، برقرار و صادق هستند. آنچه در پاسخ به این دو مسئله در راستای دفاع از نظری بودن استدلال های اخلاقی بیان کرده ایم، این است که ضرورت استدلال های اخلاقی از نوع ضرورت De Dicto است و نه ضرورت De Re. همچنین استدلال های اخلاقی دارای دو سطح یا مرحله هستند: در سطح اول با استدلال های نظری مواجه هستیم که سعادت انسان ها را معیّن می کند و در سطح دوم با استدلال هایی از نوع تأمل روبه رو هستیم که گزاره های «در اکثر موارد» در این مرحله به استدلال وارد می شوند.

Self-esteem refers to a sense of intrinsic worth that does not consider superiority over others. Awareness of the significance of self-esteem leads to a greater commitment to its enhancement, and understanding its effects highlights its importance. This research categorizes the effects of self-esteem according to Nathaniel Branden, who is regarded as the father of self-esteem, into three areas: Cognitive, moral, and behavioral, and then analyzes them through the lens of Islamic teachings using a descriptive-analytical method to provide a foundation for critiquing his views. Branden believes that self-expression, acceptance of others' definitions, and individualism are effects of self-esteem; however, these effects are not supported by the teachings of the Quran and Hadith. For instance, sometimes a lack of self-expression indicates transcending one’s superficial self and reaching a higher self, which is a result of self-esteem. Similarly, an individual may consciously refuse to accept others’ definitions despite having high self-esteem for reasons such as humility or the aim of combating the ego. Additionally, not being individualistic and prioritizing the interests of others over oneself can sometimes indicate the maturity of a dignified individual, whereby the false self is sacrificed for the true self, which does not contradict self-worth and dignity.

Background: In recent years, the examination of the impact of various types of different exercises as the key influential components on balance has gained considerable popularity. Numerous studies have investigated the effects of diverse exercise modalities on the enhancement of balance abilities. Aim: The aim of this research was to compare the effects of different types of learning (explicit and implicit) on the balance of elderly individuals. Materials and Methods: Forty-two elderly participants (both women and men), after initial health assessments and medical history reviews, voluntarily participated in the study. They were randomly assigned to three groups: explicit learning group (14 participants), implicit learning group (14 participants), and control group (14 participants). Before the implementation of the targeted learning exercises, the static balance of the participants was assessed using the Flamingo Test, and dynamic balance was measured using the Timed Up and Go (TUG) test. After two sessions of learning exercises, the participants were reassessed. Statistical analysis was conducted using descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation) and inferential statistics (ANCOVA and Shapiro-Wilk test) at a significance level of P<0.05. Results: The findings indicated that there was no significant difference between the groups in the pre-test, but after performing the learning exercises, the static balance of the implicit learning group showed a statistically significant improvement compared to the explicit learning group and the control group. However, there was no significant increase in dynamic balance performance in any of the groups. Conclusion: The results of this study support the claim that implicit learning exercises can have a positive and significant impact on the static balance performance of elderly individuals. It was also shown that implicit cognitive training had no effect on dynamic balance, which may indicate the important role of other variables such as motor control abilities.