درخت حوزه‌های تخصصی

The Tigris-Euphrates basin is of high regional and global significance; however, the lack of a comprehensive multilateral agreement among riparian states has transformed the management of this transboundary watercourse into a political, security, and environmental challenge. The central issue addressed in this research is the evaluation of the quality of the application of the 'no significant harm' principle within the basin. Specifically, the study investigates whether water resource utilization—such as constructing dams beyond the natural capacity of the rivers and excessive extraction of groundwater—complies with legal obligations and the principles of equitable and reasonable utilization. This study employs an innovative interdisciplinary approach that integrates legal and technical analyses. The legal framework is established by examining customary sources, international conventions, and the insights of prominent international law scholars regarding the definition and scope of "no significant harm." Concurrently, up-to-date technical data on dam capacities, river flow alterations, and groundwater extraction—sourced from reputable publications—serve as the empirical basis for assessing the practical application of the principle. The findings indicate that mismanagement practices in water resource development can inflict significant harm on the ecosystem, regional wetlands, and the livelihoods of local communities. Therefore, the formulation of a comprehensive framework and the advancement of multilateral cooperation for the equitable and reasonable use of the Tigris-Euphrates resources is imperative.

Generally, in geopolitics and political geography the influence and the relevance of scholars of various other disciplines have been largely ignored. Therefore, in order to understand the geopolitics of Germany, this research analyzes the philosophy of Carl Schmitt, who was an influential figure during Weimer and Nazi (officially the National Socialist German Workers’ Party) eras. Schmitt’s theories a (The Political) have been incredibly impactful on Germany during Hitler’s reign and is still greatly helpful in understanding the theories and viewpoints on politics and geopolitics, especially when it comes to the geopolitical developments of the 21st century. In this research, descriptive-analytical method was used to explicate the impact of Carl Schmitt’s thought on geopolitical issues. The results of this research demonstrate a connection between the transcendental and concrete concepts of Carl Schmitt which he utilizes in order to present his spatial theories, which deal with the organization of space in line with his overall geopolitical goals.

The world is confronted with two important approaches - planning and environment - in pursuit of sustainable development, resulting in the emergence of a new term called environmental law, of which program laws are a part.Designing and implementing development programs without systematic attention to environmental considerations poses serious challenges to the path to achieving sustainable development. Therefore, assessing the level of attention to the environment in past development documents can provide a basis for reviewing future policies. The present study, using a text-based and category-based content analysis method relying on the Environmental Performance Index (EPI), analyzes the course of attention to the environment in five development programs before the revolution and six development programs after the Islamic Revolution. The findings show that although in the early stages, the concept of environment did not exist in the text of the programs and only some related categories (such as natural resources) were referred to in the agricultural section, later, with the approval of the Fifth Development Plan, the environment entered the planning structure as an independent section. After the revolution, the status of the environment gradually improved, but in recent years, despite legal emphasis, a 22-point decline in Iran's EPI performance index has been observed, indicating a gap between the approved content of programs, laws, and their effective implementation.

Siam is the name of a country in the east of Asia and east of India, this country has unique and natural features that provided important financial and commercial resources for the government and people of Siam in the 11th lunar century equal to the 17th AD. At this time, Faranarai, the king of Siam, sent an ambassador from the Iranians living in Siam, named Mohammad Salim Mazandarani, to the court of Shah Suleiman Safavi (1077-1105 AH/1666-1693 AD). One of the cultural results of these relations was the authoring of a travelogue titled Safina Soleimani, which contains valuable information about the country of Siam in economic, social, military, and cultural fields. This research aims to study the financial situation of Siam in the 11th lunar century based on Safina Soleimani travelogue, in a descriptive-analytical way. The findings of the research show that the income of Siam was provided by the two sectors of trade and agriculture, among the commercial products of Siam were native animals of that country, which were exported to its neighboring countries and even distant areas, as a result, it was considered an important source of income for the country. Considering the special natural conditions of the country of Siam during the research period, despite the aforementioned sources of income, the king and the people of that country benefited from limited financial resources. Siam trade like other countries faced with damaging factors such as; Pirates and wasting part of the capital to perform costly rituals, which resulted in less and less profitable trade.

Economic sanctions have evolved into a pivotal instrument of foreign policy, enabling states to exert pressure without direct military confrontation. Traditionally viewed as tools for punishment or coercion, their strategic function as instruments of economic leverage is receiving growing scholarly and policy attention. However, a conceptual gap persists in understanding how sanctions operate not only as punitive measures but as proactive mechanisms for shaping global behavior and diplomacy. This study aims to bridge this gap by critically examining sanctions as instruments of economic statecraft, focusing on their ability to influence state behavior, uphold international norms, and serve long-term strategic interests. Adopting a qualitative, doctrinal methodology, the article analyzes key international legal frameworks, sanctions regimes, and historical case studies involving major powers such as the U.S., EU, and China. The findings reveal that while sanctions are often framed within legal and moral justifications, their effectiveness depends heavily on multilateral coordination, economic integration levels, and the credibility of enforcement. Ultimately, the study concludes that sanctions, when strategically designed and legally grounded, can serve as effective tools of economic leverage, but their overuse or misuse risks undermining their legitimacy and the broader international legal order.

In recent years, the increasing invocation of national security exceptions in trade disputes has strained the coherence of the multilateral trading system. This paper explores the legal and geopolitical implications of Article XXI of the GATT, focusing on how its growing use—particularly by powerful states—challenges the legitimacy of WTO dispute settlement mechanisms. Addressing a significant gap in legal scholarship, the research examines the tension between sovereign discretion and multilateral accountability, an area complicated by vague treaty language and political misuse. The study’s main objective is to assess whether existing WTO frameworks can effectively constrain the abuse of the national security exception while preserving state autonomy. Using a qualitative doctrinal methodology enriched by comparative legal analysis and a focused case study on Malaysia, the paper evaluates WTO rulings (notably DS512 and DS526), regional trade practices, and Malaysia’s middle-power diplomacy. The findings reveal a shift in WTO jurisprudence toward legal scrutiny of national security claims, emphasizing proportionality, necessity, and good faith. Malaysia’s cautious, multilateral approach offers a model for smaller states navigating coercive trade environments. The study concludes that reforming Article XXI is vital to maintaining the legitimacy of the rules-based trading order amid evolving geopolitical and economic challenges.

The paradox of security-development (PSD) has been a major global issue in borderline regions, particularly occurring in developing economies presented with drug trafficking. International drug trafficking in such regions is hidden under a cloud of political issues, which in turn has triggered the undertaking of martial-security tactics in matters of drug trades. Herein, this study proceeds with an audit of PSD in eastern borderline regions of Iran, with an analysis of the impacts of martial-security policies on border residents and international drug trades using qualitative methods and interviews with 75 frontiersmen, border officials, and drug traffickers. The findings indicate that policies have not been able to control drug smuggling into the country. Reducing and eliminating drug-trafficking in the eastern borders of Iran requires a perspective which views the issue as independent alongside development-based strategies instead of the existing security policies. One resolution to this puzzle is coordinated border management (CBM), centered on expanding development capacities in eastern borderline regions of Iran, to enable continuing security measures against illicit drug deals.

Since the introduction of virtual space to Iranian society, its function has always been controversial. The state remains continuously cautious about its control over the country. It has expressed concern about foreign interventions in virtual space, leading citizens to view it as a means of connecting to the global community, an opportunity for political engagement and social activism, and an accelerator of global connectivity. Therefore, ‘virtual space’ is a significant issue for the Iranian state and its citizens. Although there is no clear distinction between their perspectives, and each showcases varying attitudes, it can be generally stated that there exists a contrast between academic views on this topic. This divergence is explicitly illustrated by the theories presented by scholars in communication and Geography. In this paper, we will examine two distinct theories in Iranian academia regarding virtual space: spatial duality and the political geography of cyberspace. By analyzing these theories within the geography framework, we will explore the reasons behind them, their implications and impacts, and their weaknesses, ultimately arguing for adopting virtual geography as a preferable alternative to the political geography of cyberspace.

In recent decades, economic sanctions have become an increasingly preferred instrument of international diplomacy, aiming to enforce global norms without resorting to armed conflict. However, the expanding use of unilateral sanctions—particularly those with extraterritorial reach—has reignited tensions with foundational principles of state sovereignty and international trade law. Despite their growing prevalence, the legal legitimacy of these measures remains contested, with many occupying a gray area in international law. This study addresses the gap in scholarly consensus on the legal and normative status of unilateral sanctions vis-à-vis multilateral regimes. The central objective is to evaluate whether economic sanctions, especially those not authorized by the United Nations Security Council (UNSC), are legally compatible with principles of sovereignty, non-intervention, and World Trade Organization (WTO) rules. Employing doctrinal legal research, the article analyzes core instruments like the UN Charter, GATT Article XXI, case law, and academic literature. Key findings reveal that while UNSC-backed sanctions enjoy firm legal standing, unilateral sanctions challenge established norms, often triggering disputes over jurisdiction and extraterritoriality. The study concludes that while sanctions may serve legitimate policy aims, their legal justification must balance sovereignty, proportionality, and global normative commitments to maintain legitimacy within the international legal order.