عاطفه ابوالحسنی

Russia’s invasion of Ukraine involved a combination of hard and soft power measures, with geopolitical representations strategically employed to justify violations of international law. Despite their significance for understanding Russia’s regional actions, academic literature has mainly underexplored geopolitical representations. This paper aims to address this gap and answer to the following questions: (1) how did Russia use geopolitical narrations to justify the war against Ukraine, and (2) why did Russian geopolitical representations fail to achieve the aims? The research hypothesis is that 'the purpose of geopolitical narratives of perceived threats from Ukraine was to receive internal support and legitimize the war form the point of view of International Laws'. The research findings suggest that Russia’s initial military intervention was primarily based on a geopolitical narrative portraying Ukraine as an immediate threat through the alleged presence of Nazis, which served as a pretext to justify military action. In reality, this narrative was also used to retain Ukraine as a buffer zone against NATO expansion. This paper examines how geopolitical representations have influenced Russia’s foreign policy and its implications for regional security, and shows how they have been used to justify and sustain Russia’s military actions against Ukraine.

Since the introduction of virtual space to Iranian society, its function has always been controversial. The state remains continuously cautious about its control over the country. It has expressed concern about foreign interventions in virtual space, leading citizens to view it as a means of connecting to the global community, an opportunity for political engagement and social activism, and an accelerator of global connectivity. Therefore, ‘virtual space’ is a significant issue for the Iranian state and its citizens. Although there is no clear distinction between their perspectives, and each showcases varying attitudes, it can be generally stated that there exists a contrast between academic views on this topic. This divergence is explicitly illustrated by the theories presented by scholars in communication and Geography. In this paper, we will examine two distinct theories in Iranian academia regarding virtual space: spatial duality and the political geography of cyberspace. By analyzing these theories within the geography framework, we will explore the reasons behind them, their implications and impacts, and their weaknesses, ultimately arguing for adopting virtual geography as a preferable alternative to the political geography of cyberspace.