درخت حوزه‌های تخصصی

The emerging right to democracy (e.g. Franck, T) within international law favors a liberal, democratic packaging. Yet as Abedolkarim Sourash argues, there has been a conflation of liberalism and democracy, which must be decoupled.  It is from this point of departure that this paper will examine the international legality of militant democracy and interrogate when and how a constitutional democracy can legally act in an anti-democratic manner to combat threats to its democratic existence.  Militant democracy was a term introduced in 1937 by Karl Lowenstein. It refers to a form of constitutional democracy authorized to protect civil and political freedom by pre-emptively restricting its exercise. Lowenstein’s writings, at the time, were concerned with the limitations of democratic institutions in containing fascism. Militant democracies stand in contrast with the principles of legal pluralism, but the extent to which international law authorizes transformative political agendas that seek to implement forms of religious, cultural, or national autonomy is unclear.

After the atrocity’s committed during the Second World War, the citizens of the world cried out for a universal code of ethics. On December 10th 1948 the General Assembly of the United Nations adopted a universal declaration of human rights, thus setting a new standard for all nations to follow. According to Article 18 of that declaration “Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship, and observance”. People, and women in particular, who are born in different parts of the world have different cultural, as well as religious identities. It is time for education on, and a universal understanding of, the identity differences of Muslim women to be made universally accessible, and understood. Although the ultimate result was the near obliteration of an entire race, and a worldwide war, the groundwork was laid in a much quieter manner. The Nazi party slowly began working their ideals into society. First espousing the sovereignty of the German race and then planting the seeds for the loathing and contempt that would follow for all other races. Near the end of the Second World War Adolph Hitler described Jewish people as “something aggressive” the same words that French president Jacques Chirac recently used when petitioning Parliament to pass a law banning the wearing of hijab in France?

The guiding question of this paper is “How can, if at all, the universality of human rights survive critical examinations within the prevailing multiculturalist frame of reference?” This paper examines the possibility conditions of critically reasoning for the universality of human rights. The discussions in this paper runs at two levels of analysis. At the conceptual level, a theoretical monist-pluralist frame of reference will be developed to reformulate the problematic of the universality of human rights in a form more compatible methodologically with multiculturalist approaches in the humanities, social sciences and current discourses of cultural studies. Demonstrating the weaknesses of the alternative solutions, the main hypothesis of this study suggests to refer to a reconstructed version of the “golden rule of reciprocal fairness.” At the practical level, this paper will set forth three “why”, “which”, and “how” questions regarding those principles which can bolster a universal reception of the human rights as fairness.  

Sustainable Urban Tourism Management and Planning in today's world have become indisputable and undeniable. In this context, given this tourism, it is a phenomenon that is partly and in part a denominator of the whole economic, political, social and cultural system of a country. As a result, trying to flourish it requires management and system planning. The purpose of this paper is to examine the necessity of management and systematic planning of sustainable tourism in metropolitan areas of Iran. The main question of the article is that the management and planning of sustainable tourism system in the metropolitan areas of Iran should have what model and specifications? The hypothesis we are trying to analyze in this article is to answer the main question. The systematic planning of sustainable tourism in the metropolitan areas of Iran should bring all the institutions of the sovereignty of the country, especially the security institutions, in to a workable and sustainable cycle. The method of this paper is an analytical descriptive study in which it will try to study the subject of the research using scientific and research papers as well as scientific and research articles. The results of the article show that Sustainable tourism management and planning in the metropolis of Iran is a complex and challenging phenomenon that it requires government administration and planning at the legislative and executive levels and regulatory levels.

The purpose of this research is to clarify the importance of economic equilibrium of tourism contracts and prove the importance and relevance of public order to economic equilibrium. The school of law and economics is one of the most important schools of law among applied law system. The primary purpose of the economic equilibrium of tourism contracts is to provide and guarantee the interests of parties efficiently and this function should lead to socio-economic efficiently for the whole society. For this purpose, a superior power must be able to guarantee the economic equilibrium of the tourism contracts and establish a strong executive guarantee to avoid disrupting contracts. In other words, protecting the economic equilibrium of tourism contracts is the task of an institution called public order and lawyers and economists believe that the task of enforcing public order is one of the duties of the state.The results of this study show that maintaining the economic equilibrium of a ground in order to achieve exchangeable justice in its true sense as well as the main goals of community contracts (contracts in society) As a result, it guarantees the effectiveness of the contract in the interest of social interest, and also, the economic equilibrium of the tourism contract must be consistent with socio-economic and legal criteria and the lack of economic equilibrium will lead to inefficiency of the contract and one of the obvious effects not doing that will be ineffectiveness of the contract and termination of the contract.

 Second homes tourism is one of the patterns of tourism expansion especially in rural and mountainous areas that is achieved through the expansion of the ownership of second homes (upcountry or holiday homes). Despite the relatively long history of second homes in rural areas, second home tourism has recently experienced a resurgence, often due to new patterns of production and economic consumption. The purpose of this study was to investigate the second homes in tourism in Damavand. The city has been attracted by tourists, especially homeowners, due to its specific geographical location, such as the countryside, beautiful highlands and valleys, lack of pollution in the cities, and its terms of its easy access to this city. Descriptive and analytical research method and processing of 127 questionnaires in SPSS environment showed that there is a significant relationship between second homes and tourism development.

There is no doubt that tourism plays an important role in the revitalization and diversification of communities, but at the same time it can cause the effects and changes that this industry has on society, changes in the social, economic and living environment of the regions. It is complex and varies from region to region, so the effects it has are very different and vary from region to region. The purpose of the present study by descriptive-analytical method; is investigating the effects of religious tourism from the perspective of cultural patterns and examples of Islam and Islamic jurisprudence, as well as providing strategies for the tourism industry based on Islamic religious models by collecting library information and documentary. The results of the research show that tourism and travel from the Islamic point of view is not only not limited but while emphasizing tourism, its Islamic dimensions and examples are also abundant.