درخت حوزه‌های تخصصی

انسان، همواره به لحاظ ماهیت زندگی اجتماعی اش، برای برقراری ارتباط با همنوعان خود از ابزارها و وسایل متعددی استفاده کرده که در این میان "" زبان"" به عنوان یک پدیده اجتماعی (قوه ناطقه خاص بشر که نقطه تمایز او با نوع حیوان می باشد) مهمترین وسیله ارتباطی او محسوب شده که به واسطه آن نیات و مقاصد خود را به مخاطب خود انتقال می دهد. و اما اکنون سئوال این است؛ آیا متکلم (گویشور) همیشه، طی یک دیالوگ و تعامل با مخاطب خود، با ادای منظم واج ها و تکواژهای زبان در زنجیره گفتار صرفاً قصد استفهام، نفی و یا تأیید صوری حقیقتی را دارد؟ اینجاست که باید اذعان کرد که در اوایل دهه 60 قرن بیستم میلادی، به دنبال تحقیقات ج. ل. آستین فیلسوف و زبانشناس بریتانیایی، زبانشناسی و نقد ادبی با فاصله زیاد از نظریات ساختارگرایانه فردینان دو سوسور رویکرد دیگری به خود گرفته و بدین طریق پایه های زبانشناسی پراگماتیک بنا شد. آستین بر این باور بود که سخن گفتن همیشه تنها و فقط و فقط به معنای تأیید چیزی یا حقیقتی نبوده، بلکه می تواند بطور ضمنی حامل پیام دیگری برای مخاطب بوده باشد، مثلاً درخواست انجام کاری یا القاء چیزی دیگر غیر از معنای سطحی کلام. معمولاً نیت و معنای اصلی کلام گوینده هم در این لایه های درونی گفتار مستتر است که مخاطب کلام باید طی فرآیند خاصی آن را رمزگشایی کرده و بدان واکنش معقول و منطقی نشان دهد، تا اینکه یک تعامل زبانی به معنای واقعی کلمه برقرار گردد. در این مقال اندک نگارنده تلاش خواهد کرد- ضمن توجه و تمرکز به این اصل که نمی توان همیشه و حکماً از طریق شکل ظاهری زبان (ساختواژه ها، واج ها، صیغه گان و عناصر همنشینی حاضر در زنجیره گفتار) به کشف معنا و نیت باطنی کلام گویشور(ان) دست یافت؛ بلکه پارامترهای مهمتر دیگری چون فضای روانی، اجتماعی و فرهنگی حاکم در یک تعامل زبانی نیز سهم بسزایی در رمزگشایی معنا دارند- اصطلاح «زبانشناسی پراگماتیک» را ریشه شناسی، تعریف و تحلیل کرده و به مسائلی از جمله: کلام استعاری و کنایی، حروف ربط استدلالی، معنای ضمنی و گزاره های اجرایی بپردازد.

The distribution of the allophones of /?/in certain contexts involves free variation and gradient preferences. An organized survey was conducted to elicit the judgments of 37 native Persian speakers concerning the well-formedness of /?/allophonic behavior in five different phonological positions. The results showed that the differences in judgment between the various categories are not just the result of random variations, but are an authentic reflection of the underlying structural differences. Following Boersma and Hayes (1999) and Hayes (2000), a stochastic model is proposed within optimality theory to account for the gradient judgments involved. The model assumes that constraints are arranged along a continuum of constraint strictness, with a band of strictness value assigned to each. When the strictness bands of two constraints overlap, then both rankings of the two constraints are equally available for the generation of outputs, yielding free variant forms. However, when a particular form can be generated only by assigning a constraint a strictness value (/?/ or /??/) within a designated “fringe” of the strictness band, the model generates the form marked with an intermediate degree of well-formedness.

This paper offers a state-of-the-art working definition for the concept of Critical Thinking (CT hereafter) in an attempt to provide a framework for the development of an operational definition for this complex concept. Having studied various definitions and models, proposed for CT by major figures in the field, the key defining features of this rich concept were identified and classified. Based on these key descriptors, a working definition consisting of three main components namely Mind Analysis , Data Evaluation , and Thinking in Education has been proposed and then each dimension of this definition is defined and elaborated further so that the complexity of the concept could be framed in an extended model. The elaborated conception of CT proposed in this paper seeks to include the core elements of CT so that it can be expandable into an operational definition with measurable items. There are two main reasons for conducting this research: Firstly, CT has evolved into a multifaceted construct with a broad range of cognitive abilities and intellectual dispositions. Secondly, although CT has been recognized as a significant concept in education, its full potential has not been achieved yet.

The primary purpose of the present study was to explore whether there was any significant relationship between attitude, self-efficacy, and job satisfaction of Iranian EFL teachers on the one hand, and their choice of teaching strategies. Strategies mostly used by participants of the study with low, mid, and high levels of self-efficacy comprised another purpose of the study. To this end, a questionnaire was developed, piloted, validated, and its reliability was estimated for collecting the required data. Subsequently, based on cluster sampling, 420 male and female teachers from three different educational districts of Tehran responded to the questionnaire. Three separate MANOVAs were run to investigate the effect of teachers’ attitudes on strategies they employed for teaching grammar, vocabulary, and reading. This was followed by the same approach to study the effect of teachers’ self-efficacy and job-satisfaction levels, as well. The results revealed a significant relationship between three factors (attitude, self-efficacy, and job satisfaction) and teachers’ choice of teaching strategies. Moreover, based on the scores obtained from the answers to the questionnaire, participants were classified into three levels of low, mid, and high which corresponded with their degrees of attitude, self-efficacy, and job satisfaction. Accordingly, it was shown that high level of attitude, self-efficacy, and job satisfaction strongly affected teachers’ use of vocabulary teaching strategies; mid to high level of attitude and efficacy affected use of reading and grammar strategies. Also, it appeared that strategies for teaching vocabulary are used more frequently among teachers than grammar and reading.