درخت حوزه‌های تخصصی

Economic sanctions have evolved into a pivotal instrument of foreign policy, enabling states to exert pressure without direct military confrontation. Traditionally viewed as tools for punishment or coercion, their strategic function as instruments of economic leverage is receiving growing scholarly and policy attention. However, a conceptual gap persists in understanding how sanctions operate not only as punitive measures but as proactive mechanisms for shaping global behavior and diplomacy. This study aims to bridge this gap by critically examining sanctions as instruments of economic statecraft, focusing on their ability to influence state behavior, uphold international norms, and serve long-term strategic interests. Adopting a qualitative, doctrinal methodology, the article analyzes key international legal frameworks, sanctions regimes, and historical case studies involving major powers such as the U.S., EU, and China. The findings reveal that while sanctions are often framed within legal and moral justifications, their effectiveness depends heavily on multilateral coordination, economic integration levels, and the credibility of enforcement. Ultimately, the study concludes that sanctions, when strategically designed and legally grounded, can serve as effective tools of economic leverage, but their overuse or misuse risks undermining their legitimacy and the broader international legal order.

Artificial Intelligence has emerged as a transformative technology with implications for global security. This article using descriptive-analytic method aims to explore the US and China’s Competition for AI supremacy and its security consequences for global security. The research main question is that “what ramifications do the US and China’s competition for AI supremacy have for global security?” This article argues that the competition between China and the U.S in the realm of AI technologies has significant ramifications for global security, with implications spanning economic, military, and geopolitical spheres. This multifaceted competition casts a profound shadow over the contemporary international landscape and necessitates a nuanced understanding of its consequences. This article also discusses that international collaboration, dialogue, and the establishment of norms and regulations are crucial in harnessing the benefits of AI while mitigating its risks. The final section of this article addresses recommendations to robust AI systems that prioritize human rights. By embracing a responsible approach to AI, we can strive towards a safer and more secure world.

The Tigris-Euphrates basin is of high regional and global significance; however, the lack of a comprehensive multilateral agreement among riparian states has transformed the management of this transboundary watercourse into a political, security, and environmental challenge. The central issue addressed in this research is the evaluation of the quality of the application of the 'no significant harm' principle within the basin. Specifically, the study investigates whether water resource utilization—such as constructing dams beyond the natural capacity of the rivers and excessive extraction of groundwater—complies with legal obligations and the principles of equitable and reasonable utilization. This study employs an innovative interdisciplinary approach that integrates legal and technical analyses. The legal framework is established by examining customary sources, international conventions, and the insights of prominent international law scholars regarding the definition and scope of "no significant harm." Concurrently, up-to-date technical data on dam capacities, river flow alterations, and groundwater extraction—sourced from reputable publications—serve as the empirical basis for assessing the practical application of the principle. The findings indicate that mismanagement practices in water resource development can inflict significant harm on the ecosystem, regional wetlands, and the livelihoods of local communities. Therefore, the formulation of a comprehensive framework and the advancement of multilateral cooperation for the equitable and reasonable use of the Tigris-Euphrates resources is imperative.

In recent years, the increasing invocation of national security exceptions in trade disputes has strained the coherence of the multilateral trading system. This paper explores the legal and geopolitical implications of Article XXI of the GATT, focusing on how its growing use—particularly by powerful states—challenges the legitimacy of WTO dispute settlement mechanisms. Addressing a significant gap in legal scholarship, the research examines the tension between sovereign discretion and multilateral accountability, an area complicated by vague treaty language and political misuse. The study’s main objective is to assess whether existing WTO frameworks can effectively constrain the abuse of the national security exception while preserving state autonomy. Using a qualitative doctrinal methodology enriched by comparative legal analysis and a focused case study on Malaysia, the paper evaluates WTO rulings (notably DS512 and DS526), regional trade practices, and Malaysia’s middle-power diplomacy. The findings reveal a shift in WTO jurisprudence toward legal scrutiny of national security claims, emphasizing proportionality, necessity, and good faith. Malaysia’s cautious, multilateral approach offers a model for smaller states navigating coercive trade environments. The study concludes that reforming Article XXI is vital to maintaining the legitimacy of the rules-based trading order amid evolving geopolitical and economic challenges.

This study aims to investigate Saudi Arabia’s quest for regional hegemony, including its objectives, initiatives, and difficulties. In other words, the degree to which Saudi Arabia has been successful in establishing itself as the region’s dominant power. It is crucial to thoroughly explain Saudi Arabia’s psychological and practical justifications for pursuing regional hegemony in this context. To examine the political discourses, reality, narratives, ambitions, and perspectives of Saudi Arabia and compare these with other regional powers in this area, as well as to highlight a number of context-specific constraints on Saudi Arabia’s aspirations for regional hegemony, is the goal of the research. In addition, it intends to investigate how external powers such as the United States, China, Russia, the European Union, and Turkey influence Middle Eastern regional dynamics based on their own vested interests. This analysis demonstrates that Saudi Arabia’s drive for regional hegemony is mostly restrained by external causes. First, despite its preeminent economic power, the country lacks strong military capabilities to provide a security shield for its friends in this region. Second, the sectarian politics and undiversified economy of the region make it unlikely that secondary nations will receive full public goods. Third, low economic integration, the perception of a common regional threat, the absence of a broad free trade arrangement, the superiority of hard power over soft power, and a lack of mutual trust among regional countries are significantly diminishing the acceptance of Saudi Arabia’s hegemonic role in the region. However, Saudi Arabia is deliberately involving regional partners and coalitions in regional growth. The country takes on the main task for reshaping the Middle East’s economy and elevating this region to success. If Saudi Arabia is successful in fostering regional integration, offering a security shield, encouraging trust building, and collaborating with other states in this region to address shared regional threats, it will have a greater chance than the majority of other states in the region to become the regional hegemon. 

Geostrategic realms refer to large-scale spatial zones on the Earth shaped by the rivalry among major global powers, forming extensive blocs of confrontation. These realms are structured through a combination of political, cultural, economic, social, military, security, commercial, technological, and media-related factors or a subset thereof and are typically led by a dominant actor assuming a guiding role. At the global level, two primary realms can currently be identified: the maritime realm and the continental realm. Transformations within geostrategic realms are infrequent and evolve over the long term, as dominant powers strive to preserve their superiority and stability by leveraging the aforementioned variables. In the aftermath of Russia’s invasion of Ukraine, which intensified cohesion among maritime powers, a new geopolitical window has opened for China to strengthen its position within the continental realm. Moreover, the rise of Donald Trump as President of the United States and the resulting transatlantic tensions over the Ukraine war present the potential for reshaping the global geostrategic landscape. This study investigates these emerging fractures and examines the prospects for realignment among global realms and the rise of new strategic actors. It analyzes geostrategic configurations through the lens of prominent geopolitical theories and interprets the shifting dynamics between the maritime and continental realms in the current global context. The research is primarily based on library and documentary sources and follows a descriptive-analytical methodology.

This article discusses the responses to the announcement of King Hussein of the Hejaz for the caliphate in the French and British-mandated territories, which include Syria, Lebanon, and Palestine in 1924. This study uses a qualitative research method by analyzing the primary and secondary sources. This article finds that the announcement of King Hussein’s caliphate in Syria, Lebanon, and Palestine has provoked various reactions with strong support among the Arab populations in these regions. The findings also show that this support to restore the caliphate for the Arabs and the Quraysh was raised for proclaiming King Hussein as caliph. The most significant reaction of all, however, was in the French-mandated territories of Syria and Lebanon. This matter has caused an uneasy reaction from the French colonial to undermine support for King Hussein. His reign was short-lived. He lost his Hashemite kingdom and the caliphate in the same year, when the Saudi ruler, Ibn Saud immediately attacked his declaration as illegitimate and launched a military campaign in Hejaz. King Hussein went into exile to Cyprus, where he lived until he died in 1931.

In the late twentieth century, many important facts that led to clear-cut changes in the structure of energy security issues, the most prominent of which was the global strategic oil reserve. These facts prompted regional circles to build a new world order, which includes many issues of energy security and ensuring the actor’s supplies. Regionally, the energy security sector in Iraq witnessed major challenges resulting from the security conditions and economic transformations. After the withdrawal of American forces from Iraq in 2011, security challenges increased significantly. Extremist armed groups such as ISIS attacked Oil areas, which led to a major threat to oil production and export. Oil facilities in Iraq witnessed several terrorist attacks and sabotage operations, which negatively affected the country’s ability to achieve sustainable production and export of energy supply Therefore, the operations to liberate the oil regions by the Iraqi forces from the control of the terrorist organization ISIS contributed to the Iraqi government seeking to put forward economic initiatives, most notably the development path to secure Iraqi energy supplies, in achieving economic prosperity for the country and the regional environment. this article analyzes the impact of energy security strategy for Iraq, The descriptive method is used in this article and the geopolitical and Geo-strategic transformations to it against Iraq after defeat ISIS, The main purpose of the article is to explain Iraq's goals in developing energy supply that aims to create a Economic well-being regional and international.

Foreign policy of the states is always influenced by various factors. The geopolitical location of countries has always been one of the most important variables of political, economic, and social mutual relations between countries. The geopolitical location of buffer states has compelled them to make various decisions in terms of both domestic and foreign policy areas. Some of buffer countries have successfully used this situation to achieve their national goals and interests. In some cases, the geopolitical location of the buffer faces the states with different kinds of international pressures and threats. Some of the buffer states have also been impacted by the military actions of the buffered states. But we should not neglect the fact that the behavior of the politicians of the buffer countries affects the attitude and decisions of the buffered countries. Therefore, in this article, political and economic relations and mutual relations of two countries, namely Switzerland and Ukraine, with buffered countries will be investigated. The research method is descriptive-analytic and the data and information are gathered using library and internet methods.

Terrorism, one of the types of non-war political violence, creates difficulties in many parts of the world. Terrorist organizations, which need economic resources to maintain their existence, create an environment of terrorism by using these economic resources in line with their interests. On the other hand, actors fighting against terrorism are working to dry up these financial resources. The economic struggle, which is seen as an integral part of the political, legal, social and military struggle against terrorist organizations, has an important place in limiting the opportunities and capabilities of terrorist organizations. The success of the fight against terrorist organizations is directly related to handling all aspects of the fight in a coordinated manner. In the study, the financial resources of terrorist organizations and the measures taken to dry up these resources in the fight against terrorist organizations were discussed. Additionally, ISIS's financial resources and the drying up of these financial resources were examined.

Trade wars and sanctions have become pivotal tools in modern international relations, especially in an era marked by rising geopolitical tensions. While economic sanctions aim to coerce state behavior without military intervention, their effectiveness, ethical justification, and unintended consequences remain widely contested. This paper addresses the gap in understanding the dual-edged nature of sanctions—both as instruments of peace and as catalysts for conflict. The study's primary objective is to critically analyze the geopolitical, economic, and humanitarian consequences of sanctions on both target and sanctioning states. Employing a doctrinal legal research methodology combined with empirical analysis, the paper draws on legal statutes, case law, and real-world case studies—including U.S. sanctions on Russia, Iran, and Venezuela—to assess outcomes. Findings reveal that while multilateral sanctions can compel policy change under specific conditions, most sanctions yield limited success and often backfire. They may deepen authoritarianism, provoke retaliatory alliances, and cause civilian suffering, thus undermining their original purpose. The paper concludes that sanctions must evolve into “smart sanctions,” targeting specific entities rather than entire populations, and must be embedded within broader diplomatic frameworks to remain effective and ethical in a multipolar world.

Economic sanctions are increasingly employed in international relations as a foreign policy tool, representing a middle ground between diplomacy and military action. Their growing use necessitates careful consideration of their effects on trade, legality, and ethics. While intended to modify the behavior of targeted entities, sanctions can disrupt trade patterns, potentially leading target countries to diversify trade under less favorable terms. Legal frameworks, such as the U.S. International Emergency Economic Powers Act, grant governments broad authority to impose sanctions, raising concerns about oversight. The application of sanctions also raises questions about compliance and enforcement for businesses operating globally. The theoretical underpinnings involve issue linkage and information asymmetry, impacting the success or failure of sanctions. This analysis explores the legal, economic, and ethical dimensions of economic sanctions within international trade law, considering their intended results, collateral consequences, and implications for global economic interactions.

Sanctions have transitioned from broad trade embargoes to multifaceted tools of diplomacy aimed at altering state behaviour while avoiding direct military conflict. Despite their growing use, questions persist regarding their legality, effectiveness, and ethical implications, particularly when employed by powerful states against weaker ones. This study addresses the conceptual and legal gap surrounding the evolution of sanctions from punitive measures to instruments of strategic diplomacy. The article’s main objective is to evaluate whether sanctions today function as effective diplomatic tools or if they serve coercive interests that compromise international norms. Using a qualitative, doctrinal methodology, the paper examines primary legal frameworks such as the UN Charter and WTO agreements, complemented by secondary literature and case studies including Iran, North Korea, Russia, Myanmar, and Malaysia. The findings reveal a dual nature: while sanctions can successfully enforce international law and support human rights, they often harm civilian populations and reflect power asymmetries when used unilaterally. Moreover, targeted states increasingly adapt through strategic alliances and economic resilience, diminishing the impact of sanctions. The study concludes that sanctions are most effective when legally grounded, proportionate, multilaterally enforced, and embedded in broader diplomatic strategies.

Countries and international organizations now find sanction as the most popular way of responding to global political challenges without involving military action. This paper will discuss the relationship between sanctions and international trade as well as their influence on global governance. It describes various forms of sanctions including unilateral, multilateral, targeted, and comprehensive sanction. Moreover, it provides the way the measures affect trade by banning imports and exports, financial restrictions, and restrictions to technologies transfer. The other important issue that the paper ought to address is in relation to the fact that the growing practice of unilateral sanctions, particularly by dominant nations proves to be the concern in terms of fairness and legal clarity. These may undermine the position of the multilateral institutions like the UN and WTO, and jeopardize world trade. The situation of overlapping legislations and inconsistent regulations tends to confuse countries and companies. The paper ends with the need to make reforms in enhancing legal clarity and accountability of the sanctions. It expresses more transparent international regulations, tighter international supervision, and enhanced humanitarian protection. Seeing that sanctions as a tool that surrounds the world trade structure will keep on shaping the shape of this structure, it is valuable to not only comprehend how sanctions have influence in legal and political terms but also how it maintains the world order to be stable and fair.

Syria’s post-conflict recovery confronts multifaceted challenges in governance, economic revitalization, and social reconciliation following the 2024 collapse of the Assad regime. This study employs an adaptive governance framework to address systemic failures, political fragmentation, and extremism, shaped by regional geopolitics, notably Turkey’s focus on territorial integrity and counter-terrorism. Findings highlight the necessity of decentralized governance and stringent anti-corruption measures to restore trust and stability. Economic strategies emphasize sectoral diversification, revitalizing agriculture, manufacturing, and trade, with equitable resource allocation to counter an 87% GDP decline and over 300% inflation surge. Social reconciliation hinges on community-driven initiatives, truth commissions, and inclusive policies to mend ethnic and sectarian divides. Drawing on comparative analyses of post-conflict recoveries in Rwanda and Bosnia, this research advocates for integrated, context-specific strategies supported by international collaboration to navigate geopolitical complexities. By holistically addressing governance, economic, and social dimensions, Syria can achieve sustainable development and long-term stability, tailored to its unique demographic and political landscape.