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Trade law is no longer just a tool for regulating markets. It has become a powerful instrument of geopolitical influence. In today’s global environment, legal decisions involving trade agreements, regional partnerships, and economic sanctions often produce ripple effects that influence international alliances and trigger conflicts. This article examines how trade law contributes to both cooperation and tension in the global system. It draws on key examples such as the transformation of the European Union from an economic to a political union, the strategic development of CPTPP and RCEP in the Asia-Pacific, and the formation of negotiating coalitions within the World Trade Organization. These examples show how legal trade frameworks help build lasting international partnerships. The article also explores how trade law has been used to escalate disputes, including the United States and China trade conflict, the economic sanctions imposed on Russia, the trade consequences of the United Kingdom’s withdrawal from the European Union, and the global divide over the TRIPS waiver proposal during the COVID-19 crisis. These cases illustrate how trade law can shape global outcomes far beyond commerce. The article concludes by emphasizing the need to better understand the political role of trade law and to prepare for the wide-ranging effects that may result from its use in a rapidly changing global order.

The modern paradigm of global development is based on neoliberal values. Many representatives of political science call it “neoliberal monetarism”. The modern monetary and financial system allows the issuing country of the world’s reserve currency to control and direct political and economic processes worldwide fully. The existing system of institutions and technologies conflicts with the interests of many countries that ensure stable economic growth and occupy leading positions in the world economy and politics. At present, the process of rapprochement of these countries is taking place, which is aimed at the final formation of a new world center – the Global South. The formation of ideological principles that can unite the countries of the Global South is of great importance. First of all, this refers to their vision of the basic principles of the functioning of the new world financial and economic system.

Economic sanctions have emerged as critical instruments of modern foreign policy, shaping global trade, diplomacy, and power dynamics. Rooted in ancient practice yet evolving in sophistication, sanctions today operate at the intersection of international law, geopolitics, and economic governance. This article addresses a critical gap in existing literature, which often isolates legal, economic, or political dimensions of sanctions, by offering a holistic, interdisciplinary analysis. The main objective is to evaluate how sanctions influence international relations, legal legitimacy, and trade architecture—particularly under unilateral, multilateral, and extraterritorial frameworks. Employing a doctrinal legal research method complemented by case studies of Russia, Iran, North Korea, Venezuela, and Cuba, the study critically assesses sanctions’ legal bases, economic consequences, and geopolitical shifts. Findings reveal that while multilateral sanctions enjoy greater legitimacy, unilateral and extraterritorial measures frequently undermine international norms and inflict humanitarian harm. Sanctions also stimulate realignment toward multipolarity, drive the development of alternative financial systems, and increasingly challenge the coherence of international legal institutions like the WTO. The study concludes that sanctions remain potent yet imperfect tools; their legitimacy and impact depend on adherence to legal principles, proportionality, and ethical considerations in a rapidly evolving global order.

The dispute settlement mechanism of the World Trade Organization (WTO) represents one of the most sophisticated legal frameworks for resolving international trade conflicts. Nonetheless, the dispute settlement mechanism of the WTO encountered its most severe crisis in 2019 since its inception. Following the unresolved political disagreement by the United States, the Appellate Body, being the first-ever appellate review forum for international trade disputes, ceased to function in December 2019. This article shall comprise a detailed examination of this unprecedented and most severe crisis of the WTO, analysing its historical roots, immediate consequences, and potential pathways for reform. Methodologically, the research combines doctrinal legal analysis with empirical examination of dispute settlement trends since the dysfunction and/or paralysis of the Appellate Body. This study further reviews all 32 cases currently in appellate limbo, analyses the jurisprudence of the MPIA, and assesses the growing trend of forum shopping as members increasingly turn to alternative dispute resolution mechanisms outside the WTO framework. The article concludes by situating the Appellate Body’s crisis within broader debates about the future of multilateralism in an era of geopolitical tensions and economic nationalism. This study further highlights the importance of restoring a functional dispute settlement mechanism not only for the WTO's credibility but for the preservation of a legal framework to govern international trade.

This paper examines the complex legal and ethical dimensions surrounding the 2014 fatwa issued by Ayatollah Ali al-Sistani, urging Iraqi citizens to fight the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS). This religious edict triggered the formation of the Popular Mobilization Forces (PMF), a powerful and controversial coalition of Shia militias. While officially integrated into the Iraqi security forces, the PMF’s actions and loyalties have been subject to ongoing debate, raising questions about their compliance with Iraqi law and international human rights standards. The study analyzes the fatwa's compatibility with international humanitarian law and human rights principles, examining the religious authority's directives on the treatment of civilians and prisoners of war. It traces the legislative process that formally integrated the PMF into the Iraqi armed forces and assesses whether this legal framework adequately addresses the challenges posed by the PMF's diverse composition and history. Furthermore, the paper examines the ongoing role of religious authority in influencing the PMF's conduct and integration into the state’s security apparatus, highlighting the intricate interplay between religious authority, military force, and the rule of law in a conflict-ridden environment. The analysis concludes by offering a nuanced assessment of the legal and ethical implications of the fatwa and the subsequent actions of the PMF, arguing that while isolated incidents of abuse occurred, the religious authority's guidelines actively worked against the establishment of systematic human rights violations.

This paper aims to analyse how the propaganda narrative of ISIS encourages women in Indonesia to commit terrorism. This study contributes to filling gaps in radical movement research by involving gender aspects and narratives in explaining terrorism. This research uses a qualitative method by interviewing former ISIS women to identify how they joined ISIS. Testimonies of former ISIS sympathisers from online media, online magazines, YouTube, and Facebook became secondary sources. The results indicate two aspects. First, Indonesian women are influenced by ISIS through online propaganda on social media. Second, two narrative levels encouraged Indonesian women to join ISIS. The first-level narratives were injustice, unequal law, and infidel governance, which became the initial drivers for women to act terrorism. The second-level narratives were stories about female heroism during the Prophet Muhammad's time that served as reinforcement. To conclude, these findings have implications for the importance of gender-based counter-narratives.

This research explores the legal foundations and practical application of sanctions as instruments of foreign policy in the contemporary international order. As traditional methods of conflict resolution and diplomatic pressure continue to evolve, sanctions have emerged as a preferred tool for states and international bodies to influence the behavior of target nations without resorting to military force. This study critically examines the legal mechanism that authorizes the use of sanctions under international law, with a particular focus on the framework established by the United Nations Charter and relevant domestic legislation. It also investigates the shift from comprehensive sanctions targeted or “smart” sanctions, which aim to minimize humanitarian impacts while maintaining political pressure. Using the Iran-West conflict as a case study, the paper evaluates the effectiveness, legality, and ethical implications of sanctions regimes, drawing comparisons with approaches in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Malaysia. Through doctrinal and comparative legal analysis, supported by qualitative data from secondary sources, this seeks to provide a clearer understanding of how sanctions operate as a legal tool of power and influence in foreign policy. The findings highlight the complexities, challenges, and future directions of sanctions use with the framework of international law and global governance.

The complexity of global order is often obscured by the oversimplified representations of international relations, illustrated through political maps. These maps, while seemingly objective, are subjective projections that reflect the ideology of their creators and fail to capture the nuanced dynamics of power and control among states. Such a misrepresentation contributes to a distorted understanding of global dynamics. Meanwhile, the origins of political geography can be traced back to the 18th century, particularly with the establishment of the first school of political geography in Saint-Petersburg, Russia, between 1720 and 1750. Political geography, however, is not entirely homogenic; it encompasses several competing theories regarding the perception of space. It has developed gradually with the changes in perception of space: as an absolute, relative and cognitive space respectively. Recognizing the complexity and evolutionary features of a political map and political geography as whole thus appears to be crucial for understanding global politics.

Siam is the name of a country in the east of Asia and east of India, this country has unique and natural features that provided important financial and commercial resources for the government and people of Siam in the 11th lunar century equal to the 17th AD. At this time, Faranarai, the king of Siam, sent an ambassador from the Iranians living in Siam, named Mohammad Salim Mazandarani, to the court of Shah Suleiman Safavi (1077-1105 AH/1666-1693 AD). One of the cultural results of these relations was the authoring of a travelogue titled Safina Soleimani, which contains valuable information about the country of Siam in economic, social, military, and cultural fields. This research aims to study the financial situation of Siam in the 11th lunar century based on Safina Soleimani travelogue, in a descriptive-analytical way. The findings of the research show that the income of Siam was provided by the two sectors of trade and agriculture, among the commercial products of Siam were native animals of that country, which were exported to its neighboring countries and even distant areas, as a result, it was considered an important source of income for the country. Considering the special natural conditions of the country of Siam during the research period, despite the aforementioned sources of income, the king and the people of that country benefited from limited financial resources. Siam trade like other countries faced with damaging factors such as; Pirates and wasting part of the capital to perform costly rituals, which resulted in less and less profitable trade.

When analyzing the histories of nations, it becomes clear that times of crisis often give rise to various figures who position themselves as problem solvers. Among these, authoritarian leaders are particularly notable. While certain aspects of their childhoods are frequently cited as significant, the geopolitical contexts and global shifts during their rise to power are equally crucial. These leaders typically emerge in countries experiencing similar external pressures, regional conflicts, or transformations in the international balance of power. By examining these shared geopolitical circumstances alongside personal histories, we gain valuable insight into the emergence and appeal of such figures during turbulent periods. This study identifies eight widely recognized cases from 1919 to 2011, including Adolf Hitler, Manuel Noriega, Idi Amin, Muammar Gaddafi, Benito Mussolini, Saddam Hussein, Pol Pot, and Tojo Hideki. Using a descriptive, analytical, and comparative approach, it seeks to answer the question: how do authoritarian figures exploit geopolitical environments to consolidate and expand their power? The findings suggest that such leaders often use ongoing crises to legitimize their actions, manipulate public sentiment, and push territorial or ideological agendas. To enhance accuracy and pattern recognition, artificial intelligence (AI) techniques were employed in the analysis phase. These tools helped reveal recurring behavioral and geopolitical patterns that may otherwise remain unnoticed. The study emphasizes the importance of identifying these dynamics early to prevent future international crises.

The relationship between Identity and stability occupies the core of consensus democracy philosophy, as this governance model is designed to ultimately realise stability by addressing societal fragmentation in divided societies. In Iraq, this relationship shapes a complicated trajectory, mainly because the society moved fast from identity politics (transition) to issues politics (post-transition), which turned the consensus democracy itself that succeeded in realising stability in the transition by functioning well in addressing identity-related crises paradoxically into a driver for instability in the post-transition, for its dysfunctionality beyond the identity sphere. This article argues that this dysfunctionality is primarily linked to flaws of Arend Lijphart’s theory of consensus democracy more than problems stemming from the Iraqi context. It reviews and analyses the existing literature on the nexus of identity and stability under consensus democracy, taking Iraq as a case study. As a review article, this research uses the qualitative method; its data are collected from secondary sources. It found that the philosophy of consensus democracy is designed to primarily meet transition demands, which makes rapid societal transformation beyond transition raise bottom-up pressures expressed in new demands that this democracy cannot accommodate, creating a growing gap between the post-transitional social dynamics and the transitional politics, which generates chronic instability. Further research is needed on stabilisation mechanisms in post-transition, as most studies of consensus democracy focus on stability in transition.