درخت حوزه‌های تخصصی

Purpose- Land commodification is a process through which land shifts from being a productive, ecological, and social resource to a speculative asset and a vehicle for capital accumulation. Over the past decade, this process has intensified across the urban and rural zones of western Gilan Province, resulting in widespread villa construction, unregulated land-use conversions, increasing pressure on agricultural lands, spatial fragmentation, and the weakening of rural development. Despite the significance of this phenomenon, previous studies have rarely undertaken a systematic identification of the key driving forces shaping this complex dynamic. Design/methodology/approach- Addressing this gap, the present study first identified a broad set of factors influencing land commodification through semi-structured interviews with local experts, managers, and stakeholders (145 participants). Following a screening and consensus-building process with 10 spatial-planning specialists, 59 final variables were extracted and subjected to structural analysis using a cross-impact matrix in MICMAC software. In addition, survey data from 300 local residents were employed to capture lived experiences, validate the operational mechanisms, and complement the analytical outcomes. Finding- MICMAC results reveal that the absence of deterrent regulations and effective oversight mechanisms, weak agricultural support policies, fragmented land governance, the expansion of non-strategic tourism, and the increasing attractiveness of converting liquidity into land function as the principal driving variables. These drivers reinforce a self-amplifying cycle—characterized by rising land prices, intensified speculation, withdrawal of agricultural lands from production, and rapid villa development—that ultimately fosters spatial instability and undermines rural development. Originality/value– By mapping the causal structure and identifying the key drivers, this study provides an evidence-based foundation for targeted policy interventions aimed at regulating land commodification and enhancing spatial–rural sustainability in western Gilan.

Purpose- Rural women’s cooperatives play a crucial role in improving livelihoods, fostering economic independence, and empowering women in rural communities. However; these cooperatives face multiple challenges that can affect their performance and sustainability. Accordingly, this study seeks to assess the feasibility of establishing a women's cooperative and to analyze the challenges facing rural women's cooperatives in Dizajabad rural. Design/methodology/approach- This research is applied in purpose and employs both quantitative and qualitative paradigms. The statistical population in the quantitative section consisted of women in Dizajabad rural. In contrast, the qualitative section included women participating in business training courses and experts from the Zanjan Province Cooperative Office. The sample size in the quantitative part was determined as 292 using Cochran's formula. Data collection tools included a researcher-made questionnaire and interviews, with the questionnaire’s reliability confirmed by a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.78. Data analysis employed a one-sample t-test for the quantitative section and grounded theory for the qualitative section. Qualitative data were gathered through direct observation and semi-structured interviews, then analysed using open, axial, and selective coding. Findings- Results of the one-sample t-test indicated that socio-cultural factors provide favorable conditions for the formation of women’s cooperatives, while economic indicators were not evaluated as favorable. Furthermore, qualitative findings revealed 18 initial concepts from interviews regarding challenges to cooperative formation, categorised into four dimensions: policy-making, social, economic, and individual. Key barriers included weak legislation, poor planning, lack of investment and financial support, weak local management, insufficient supervision, lack of coordination among institutions, existence of parallel organisations, inadequate facilities, insecurity in the business environment, low risk-taking, weak individual capabilities, limited technical knowledge, poor market awareness, lack of education and training, and delinquency. Originality/Value- Rural women’s cooperatives, by creating employment opportunities, enhancing specialised skills, and strengthening individual and collective capacities, play a significant role in the economic and social empowerment of women. By increasing women’s active participation in production and decision-making processes, these institutions contribute to improved household livelihoods, sustainable development, and the strengthening of human capital in rural communities.

Purpose- Increasing economic pressures, environmental degradation, and public health challenges in urban areas have been identified as key drivers motivating individuals to return to rural regions. This study examines the influence of economic, socio-cultural, environmental, and spatial factors on return migration to rural areas, focusing on Bandar Khamir County in Iran as a case study. Design/methodology/approach- This study employed a descriptive-analytical approach and a quantitative method. The statistical population included Bandar Khamir residents, and a sample of 300 people was selected using a simple random sampling method. A researcher-developed Return Migration Questionnaire was utilised to examine the research variables. This questionnaire was designed to cover four factors: economic, social-cultural, environmental, and spatial factors. Several professors and experts verified the face validity of this scale, and its reliability was assessed using Cronbach's alpha, which produced a coefficient of 0.90. This is regarded as a highly satisfactory value for the questionnaire. The study utilized LISREL for structural analysis to verify the measurement model's validity, and SPSS for statistical processing. Specifically, the Chi-square test was calculated using SPSS version 23. Findings- The results showed that economic, socio-cultural, environmental, and spatial factors all have a positive and statistically significant effect on return migration. Economic factors had the strongest impact (β = 0.929; R² = 0.863), explaining 86.3% of the variance in return migration. Environmental (β = 0.923; R² = 0.852) and socio-cultural factors (β = 0.907; R² = 0.822) also demonstrated strong explanatory power, while spatial factors showed a comparatively lower but still significant effect (β = 0.805; R² = 0.648). Chi-square test results confirmed all four hypotheses at p < 0.001 (df = 299). Economic factors had the highest association with return migration (χ² = 172.534), followed by spatial (χ² = 118.421), environmental (χ² = 97.842), and socio-cultural factors (χ² = 83.327). Overall, the findings indicate that all four dimensions significantly influence return migration behavior, with economic determinants playing the most prominent role. Research limitations/implications - The study relied exclusively on a self-report questionnaire as the sole instrument for data collection. Participant selection was limited to migrants, meaning the findings reflect only this specific group's perceptions rather than a multi-stakeholder perspective. Practical implications - The results of this study have a significant impact on the development of public policies related to return migration. In conclusion, this study demonstrated that return migration to Bandar Khamir is driven by a complex set of issues, influenced by economic, social-cultural, environmental and spatial factors. Return migration represents a viable strategy for rural revitalization and balanced regional development. The findings suggest that addressing urban crises requires investing in rural alternatives. 

Trade law is no longer just a tool for regulating markets. It has become a powerful instrument of geopolitical influence. In today’s global environment, legal decisions involving trade agreements, regional partnerships, and economic sanctions often produce ripple effects that influence international alliances and trigger conflicts. This article examines how trade law contributes to both cooperation and tension in the global system. It draws on key examples such as the transformation of the European Union from an economic to a political union, the strategic development of CPTPP and RCEP in the Asia-Pacific, and the formation of negotiating coalitions within the World Trade Organization. These examples show how legal trade frameworks help build lasting international partnerships. The article also explores how trade law has been used to escalate disputes, including the United States and China trade conflict, the economic sanctions imposed on Russia, the trade consequences of the United Kingdom’s withdrawal from the European Union, and the global divide over the TRIPS waiver proposal during the COVID-19 crisis. These cases illustrate how trade law can shape global outcomes far beyond commerce. The article concludes by emphasizing the need to better understand the political role of trade law and to prepare for the wide-ranging effects that may result from its use in a rapidly changing global order.

The modern paradigm of global development is based on neoliberal values. Many representatives of political science call it “neoliberal monetarism”. The modern monetary and financial system allows the issuing country of the world’s reserve currency to control and direct political and economic processes worldwide fully. The existing system of institutions and technologies conflicts with the interests of many countries that ensure stable economic growth and occupy leading positions in the world economy and politics. At present, the process of rapprochement of these countries is taking place, which is aimed at the final formation of a new world center – the Global South. The formation of ideological principles that can unite the countries of the Global South is of great importance. First of all, this refers to their vision of the basic principles of the functioning of the new world financial and economic system.

Siam is the name of a country in the east of Asia and east of India, this country has unique and natural features that provided important financial and commercial resources for the government and people of Siam in the 11th lunar century equal to the 17th AD. At this time, Faranarai, the king of Siam, sent an ambassador from the Iranians living in Siam, named Mohammad Salim Mazandarani, to the court of Shah Suleiman Safavi (1077-1105 AH/1666-1693 AD). One of the cultural results of these relations was the authoring of a travelogue titled Safina Soleimani, which contains valuable information about the country of Siam in economic, social, military, and cultural fields. This research aims to study the financial situation of Siam in the 11th lunar century based on Safina Soleimani travelogue, in a descriptive-analytical way. The findings of the research show that the income of Siam was provided by the two sectors of trade and agriculture, among the commercial products of Siam were native animals of that country, which were exported to its neighboring countries and even distant areas, as a result, it was considered an important source of income for the country. Considering the special natural conditions of the country of Siam during the research period, despite the aforementioned sources of income, the king and the people of that country benefited from limited financial resources. Siam trade like other countries faced with damaging factors such as; Pirates and wasting part of the capital to perform costly rituals, which resulted in less and less profitable trade.

Economic sanctions have emerged as critical instruments of modern foreign policy, shaping global trade, diplomacy, and power dynamics. Rooted in ancient practice yet evolving in sophistication, sanctions today operate at the intersection of international law, geopolitics, and economic governance. This article addresses a critical gap in existing literature, which often isolates legal, economic, or political dimensions of sanctions, by offering a holistic, interdisciplinary analysis. The main objective is to evaluate how sanctions influence international relations, legal legitimacy, and trade architecture—particularly under unilateral, multilateral, and extraterritorial frameworks. Employing a doctrinal legal research method complemented by case studies of Russia, Iran, North Korea, Venezuela, and Cuba, the study critically assesses sanctions’ legal bases, economic consequences, and geopolitical shifts. Findings reveal that while multilateral sanctions enjoy greater legitimacy, unilateral and extraterritorial measures frequently undermine international norms and inflict humanitarian harm. Sanctions also stimulate realignment toward multipolarity, drive the development of alternative financial systems, and increasingly challenge the coherence of international legal institutions like the WTO. The study concludes that sanctions remain potent yet imperfect tools; their legitimacy and impact depend on adherence to legal principles, proportionality, and ethical considerations in a rapidly evolving global order.

This research explores the legal foundations and practical application of sanctions as instruments of foreign policy in the contemporary international order. As traditional methods of conflict resolution and diplomatic pressure continue to evolve, sanctions have emerged as a preferred tool for states and international bodies to influence the behavior of target nations without resorting to military force. This study critically examines the legal mechanism that authorizes the use of sanctions under international law, with a particular focus on the framework established by the United Nations Charter and relevant domestic legislation. It also investigates the shift from comprehensive sanctions targeted or “smart” sanctions, which aim to minimize humanitarian impacts while maintaining political pressure. Using the Iran-West conflict as a case study, the paper evaluates the effectiveness, legality, and ethical implications of sanctions regimes, drawing comparisons with approaches in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Malaysia. Through doctrinal and comparative legal analysis, supported by qualitative data from secondary sources, this seeks to provide a clearer understanding of how sanctions operate as a legal tool of power and influence in foreign policy. The findings highlight the complexities, challenges, and future directions of sanctions use with the framework of international law and global governance.

The dispute settlement mechanism of the World Trade Organization (WTO) represents one of the most sophisticated legal frameworks for resolving international trade conflicts. Nonetheless, the dispute settlement mechanism of the WTO encountered its most severe crisis in 2019 since its inception. Following the unresolved political disagreement by the United States, the Appellate Body, being the first-ever appellate review forum for international trade disputes, ceased to function in December 2019. This article shall comprise a detailed examination of this unprecedented and most severe crisis of the WTO, analysing its historical roots, immediate consequences, and potential pathways for reform. Methodologically, the research combines doctrinal legal analysis with empirical examination of dispute settlement trends since the dysfunction and/or paralysis of the Appellate Body. This study further reviews all 32 cases currently in appellate limbo, analyses the jurisprudence of the MPIA, and assesses the growing trend of forum shopping as members increasingly turn to alternative dispute resolution mechanisms outside the WTO framework. The article concludes by situating the Appellate Body’s crisis within broader debates about the future of multilateralism in an era of geopolitical tensions and economic nationalism. This study further highlights the importance of restoring a functional dispute settlement mechanism not only for the WTO's credibility but for the preservation of a legal framework to govern international trade.