درخت حوزه‌های تخصصی

Since the introduction of virtual space to Iranian society, its function has always been controversial. The state remains continuously cautious about its control over the country. It has expressed concern about foreign interventions in virtual space, leading citizens to view it as a means of connecting to the global community, an opportunity for political engagement and social activism, and an accelerator of global connectivity. Therefore, ‘virtual space’ is a significant issue for the Iranian state and its citizens. Although there is no clear distinction between their perspectives, and each showcases varying attitudes, it can be generally stated that there exists a contrast between academic views on this topic. This divergence is explicitly illustrated by the theories presented by scholars in communication and Geography. In this paper, we will examine two distinct theories in Iranian academia regarding virtual space: spatial duality and the political geography of cyberspace. By analyzing these theories within the geography framework, we will explore the reasons behind them, their implications and impacts, and their weaknesses, ultimately arguing for adopting virtual geography as a preferable alternative to the political geography of cyberspace.

The main rivers in Southeast Asia not only shaped civilization but also play a significant element that transcends geopolitical boundaries in that area. This article aims to examine the role of rivers in Southeast Asia in connecting communities, strengthening trade, and spreading religious beliefs such as Hindu-Buddhism and Islam, making it the core of principle for regional integration and collective identity in Asean. By using the longue durée theory, this article analyses the rivers’ roles as both physical and symbolic mediums. Findings reveal that rivers were not only used as the main routes for trading but also as channels to exchange cultures and symbols of shared identity, seen in traditions like floating markets, maritime arts, and water house communities. However, the neglect of joint management cooperation due to modern nation-state-centered approaches has affected the rivers’ potential as catalysts for regional integration. Therefore, this article emphasizes the importance of establishing a multilateral framework for river management within ASEAN, leveraging platforms such as ASEAN as mechanisms for water diplomacy to ensure ecological sustainability and equitable resource distribution.

In a federation, decentralized power is crucial in alleviating ethnic conflicts and addressing sentiments of deprivation among marginalized communities. The historic merger of the Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA) with the province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK) in May 2018, under the 25th Amendment of Pakistan's 1973 constitution, aimed to address the grievances of this area’s residents and promote peace and development. Despite its strategic significance, the tribal agencies (bordering Afghanistan) have long suffered from socio-economic and political neglect and enduring insurgency since 2002. Consequently, the merger was widely welcomed by residents and political stakeholders in the area. This study presents a qualitative and quantitative analysis of the sentiments of young residents in ex-FATA regarding socio-economic and political changes following the merger with KPK. A survey, interviews, and focus-group discussion were conducted with residents of these tribal agencies. Research findings indicate that while most former FATA inhabitants appreciate the merger, substantial progress in improving their quality of life has yet to be witnessed in practice.

In recent decades, economic sanctions have become an increasingly preferred instrument of international diplomacy, aiming to enforce global norms without resorting to armed conflict. However, the expanding use of unilateral sanctions—particularly those with extraterritorial reach—has reignited tensions with foundational principles of state sovereignty and international trade law. Despite their growing prevalence, the legal legitimacy of these measures remains contested, with many occupying a gray area in international law. This study addresses the gap in scholarly consensus on the legal and normative status of unilateral sanctions vis-à-vis multilateral regimes. The central objective is to evaluate whether economic sanctions, especially those not authorized by the United Nations Security Council (UNSC), are legally compatible with principles of sovereignty, non-intervention, and World Trade Organization (WTO) rules. Employing doctrinal legal research, the article analyzes core instruments like the UN Charter, GATT Article XXI, case law, and academic literature. Key findings reveal that while UNSC-backed sanctions enjoy firm legal standing, unilateral sanctions challenge established norms, often triggering disputes over jurisdiction and extraterritoriality. The study concludes that while sanctions may serve legitimate policy aims, their legal justification must balance sovereignty, proportionality, and global normative commitments to maintain legitimacy within the international legal order.

Trade law is no longer just a tool for regulating markets. It has become a powerful instrument of geopolitical influence. In today’s global environment, legal decisions involving trade agreements, regional partnerships, and economic sanctions often produce ripple effects that influence international alliances and trigger conflicts. This article examines how trade law contributes to both cooperation and tension in the global system. It draws on key examples such as the transformation of the European Union from an economic to a political union, the strategic development of CPTPP and RCEP in the Asia-Pacific, and the formation of negotiating coalitions within the World Trade Organization. These examples show how legal trade frameworks help build lasting international partnerships. The article also explores how trade law has been used to escalate disputes, including the United States and China trade conflict, the economic sanctions imposed on Russia, the trade consequences of the United Kingdom’s withdrawal from the European Union, and the global divide over the TRIPS waiver proposal during the COVID-19 crisis. These cases illustrate how trade law can shape global outcomes far beyond commerce. The article concludes by emphasizing the need to better understand the political role of trade law and to prepare for the wide-ranging effects that may result from its use in a rapidly changing global order.

The modern paradigm of global development is based on neoliberal values. Many representatives of political science call it “neoliberal monetarism”. The modern monetary and financial system allows the issuing country of the world’s reserve currency to control and direct political and economic processes worldwide fully. The existing system of institutions and technologies conflicts with the interests of many countries that ensure stable economic growth and occupy leading positions in the world economy and politics. At present, the process of rapprochement of these countries is taking place, which is aimed at the final formation of a new world center – the Global South. The formation of ideological principles that can unite the countries of the Global South is of great importance. First of all, this refers to their vision of the basic principles of the functioning of the new world financial and economic system.

Siam is the name of a country in the east of Asia and east of India, this country has unique and natural features that provided important financial and commercial resources for the government and people of Siam in the 11th lunar century equal to the 17th AD. At this time, Faranarai, the king of Siam, sent an ambassador from the Iranians living in Siam, named Mohammad Salim Mazandarani, to the court of Shah Suleiman Safavi (1077-1105 AH/1666-1693 AD). One of the cultural results of these relations was the authoring of a travelogue titled Safina Soleimani, which contains valuable information about the country of Siam in economic, social, military, and cultural fields. This research aims to study the financial situation of Siam in the 11th lunar century based on Safina Soleimani travelogue, in a descriptive-analytical way. The findings of the research show that the income of Siam was provided by the two sectors of trade and agriculture, among the commercial products of Siam were native animals of that country, which were exported to its neighboring countries and even distant areas, as a result, it was considered an important source of income for the country. Considering the special natural conditions of the country of Siam during the research period, despite the aforementioned sources of income, the king and the people of that country benefited from limited financial resources. Siam trade like other countries faced with damaging factors such as; Pirates and wasting part of the capital to perform costly rituals, which resulted in less and less profitable trade.

Economic sanctions have emerged as critical instruments of modern foreign policy, shaping global trade, diplomacy, and power dynamics. Rooted in ancient practice yet evolving in sophistication, sanctions today operate at the intersection of international law, geopolitics, and economic governance. This article addresses a critical gap in existing literature, which often isolates legal, economic, or political dimensions of sanctions, by offering a holistic, interdisciplinary analysis. The main objective is to evaluate how sanctions influence international relations, legal legitimacy, and trade architecture—particularly under unilateral, multilateral, and extraterritorial frameworks. Employing a doctrinal legal research method complemented by case studies of Russia, Iran, North Korea, Venezuela, and Cuba, the study critically assesses sanctions’ legal bases, economic consequences, and geopolitical shifts. Findings reveal that while multilateral sanctions enjoy greater legitimacy, unilateral and extraterritorial measures frequently undermine international norms and inflict humanitarian harm. Sanctions also stimulate realignment toward multipolarity, drive the development of alternative financial systems, and increasingly challenge the coherence of international legal institutions like the WTO. The study concludes that sanctions remain potent yet imperfect tools; their legitimacy and impact depend on adherence to legal principles, proportionality, and ethical considerations in a rapidly evolving global order.

This research explores the legal foundations and practical application of sanctions as instruments of foreign policy in the contemporary international order. As traditional methods of conflict resolution and diplomatic pressure continue to evolve, sanctions have emerged as a preferred tool for states and international bodies to influence the behavior of target nations without resorting to military force. This study critically examines the legal mechanism that authorizes the use of sanctions under international law, with a particular focus on the framework established by the United Nations Charter and relevant domestic legislation. It also investigates the shift from comprehensive sanctions targeted or “smart” sanctions, which aim to minimize humanitarian impacts while maintaining political pressure. Using the Iran-West conflict as a case study, the paper evaluates the effectiveness, legality, and ethical implications of sanctions regimes, drawing comparisons with approaches in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Malaysia. Through doctrinal and comparative legal analysis, supported by qualitative data from secondary sources, this seeks to provide a clearer understanding of how sanctions operate as a legal tool of power and influence in foreign policy. The findings highlight the complexities, challenges, and future directions of sanctions use with the framework of international law and global governance.

The dispute settlement mechanism of the World Trade Organization (WTO) represents one of the most sophisticated legal frameworks for resolving international trade conflicts. Nonetheless, the dispute settlement mechanism of the WTO encountered its most severe crisis in 2019 since its inception. Following the unresolved political disagreement by the United States, the Appellate Body, being the first-ever appellate review forum for international trade disputes, ceased to function in December 2019. This article shall comprise a detailed examination of this unprecedented and most severe crisis of the WTO, analysing its historical roots, immediate consequences, and potential pathways for reform. Methodologically, the research combines doctrinal legal analysis with empirical examination of dispute settlement trends since the dysfunction and/or paralysis of the Appellate Body. This study further reviews all 32 cases currently in appellate limbo, analyses the jurisprudence of the MPIA, and assesses the growing trend of forum shopping as members increasingly turn to alternative dispute resolution mechanisms outside the WTO framework. The article concludes by situating the Appellate Body’s crisis within broader debates about the future of multilateralism in an era of geopolitical tensions and economic nationalism. This study further highlights the importance of restoring a functional dispute settlement mechanism not only for the WTO's credibility but for the preservation of a legal framework to govern international trade.

This paper examines the complex legal and ethical dimensions surrounding the 2014 fatwa issued by Ayatollah Ali al-Sistani, urging Iraqi citizens to fight the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS). This religious edict triggered the formation of the Popular Mobilization Forces (PMF), a powerful and controversial coalition of Shia militias. While officially integrated into the Iraqi security forces, the PMF’s actions and loyalties have been subject to ongoing debate, raising questions about their compliance with Iraqi law and international human rights standards. The study analyzes the fatwa's compatibility with international humanitarian law and human rights principles, examining the religious authority's directives on the treatment of civilians and prisoners of war. It traces the legislative process that formally integrated the PMF into the Iraqi armed forces and assesses whether this legal framework adequately addresses the challenges posed by the PMF's diverse composition and history. Furthermore, the paper examines the ongoing role of religious authority in influencing the PMF's conduct and integration into the state’s security apparatus, highlighting the intricate interplay between religious authority, military force, and the rule of law in a conflict-ridden environment. The analysis concludes by offering a nuanced assessment of the legal and ethical implications of the fatwa and the subsequent actions of the PMF, arguing that while isolated incidents of abuse occurred, the religious authority's guidelines actively worked against the establishment of systematic human rights violations.

This paper aims to analyse how the propaganda narrative of ISIS encourages women in Indonesia to commit terrorism. This study contributes to filling gaps in radical movement research by involving gender aspects and narratives in explaining terrorism. This research uses a qualitative method by interviewing former ISIS women to identify how they joined ISIS. Testimonies of former ISIS sympathisers from online media, online magazines, YouTube, and Facebook became secondary sources. The results indicate two aspects. First, Indonesian women are influenced by ISIS through online propaganda on social media. Second, two narrative levels encouraged Indonesian women to join ISIS. The first-level narratives were injustice, unequal law, and infidel governance, which became the initial drivers for women to act terrorism. The second-level narratives were stories about female heroism during the Prophet Muhammad's time that served as reinforcement. To conclude, these findings have implications for the importance of gender-based counter-narratives.