محمد خطیب

مطالعات مبتنی بر دیدگاه اجتماعی – فرهنگی که به بررسی چگونگی توسعه کاربرد شناسی زبان بینابین می پردازند به تازگی توجه پژوهشگران حیطه اکتساب و آموزش زبان دوم را به خود جلب نموده و در این میان نقش مفاهیمی چون «همیاری»و « حیطه تحول تدریجی» در توسعه کاربرد شناسی زبان بینابین از جمله زمینه های در خور توجه است. مطالعه حاضر به بررسی میزان اثرگذاری کمک همیاران ارشد در حیطه تحول تدریجی ، همیاران هم سطح ، ونیز آموزگاران بدون توجه به حیطه تحول تدریجی بر توسعه کاربرد شناسی زبان می پردازد. در این مطالعه هشتاد و پنج دانشجوی رشته زبان انگلیسی شرکت نموده اند که از این تعداد 27 نفر مرد و 58 نفر زن بودند که در قالب سه گروه گواه و یک گروه کنترل قرار گرفتند. شرکت کنندگان گروه های گواه یا به یکی از روشهای همیاری مستقیم و غیرمستقیم در حیطه تحول تدریجی توسط همیاران ارشد خود و یا توسط همیاران هم سطح خود و بدون توجه به حیطه تحول تدریجی در انجام فعالیتهای زبانی یاری می شدند. شرکت کنندگان گروه کنترل نیز کمک های معلم خویش را که بدون توجه به حیطه تحول تدریجی آنان ارایه می شد دریافت می کردند. این مطالعه نشان می دهد که کمک و همیاری مستقیم و غیرمستقیم همیاران ارشد در حیطه تحول تدریجی زبان آموزان نسبت به دو نوع دیگر همیاری که بدون توجه به حیطه تحول تدریجی از طرف همیاران هم سطح و معلم ارایه می شد در توسعه کاربرد شناسی زبان بینابین نقش موثرتری دارد . کمک همیاران هم سطح نیز پس از همیاری مستقیم و غیر مستقیم همیاران ارشد در رتبه سوم تاثیر گذاری بر توسعه کاربرد شناسی زبان بینابین و تشکیل حیطه تحول تدریجی قرار می گیرد. یافته های تحقیق حاکی از آن است که اشکال مختلف همیاری به طور نسبی در توسعه کاربرد شناسی زبان بینابین زبان آموزان انگلیسی موثر می باشد.

با وجود اینکه تعداد بسیاری از تحقیقات در مورد مسایل منظورشناختی در کل و به صورت اختصاصی تر در مورد موضوعرعایت ادب صورت گرفته است، موضوع عدم رعایت ادب بسیار نادیده گرفته شده است. در این تحقیق از شرکت کنندگان درخواست شده که به نسخه های فارسی و انگلیسی یک پرسشنامه کتبی تکمیل گفتگو (WDCT) پاسخ دهند. پاسخ های جمع آوری شده به منظور تجزیه و تحلیل رابطه میان عدم رعایت ادب و قدرت بررسی شدند. بعلاوه پاسخ های پرسشنامه فارسی با پاسخ های معادل انگلیسی آن مقایسه شدند تا تفاوت آنها از نظر رابطه میان عدم رعایت ادب و قدرت بررسی گردد.نتایج حاصله بر اساس تعداد موارد عدم رعایت ادب نشان داد که علیرغم وجود رابطه ای مستقیم میان عدم رعایت ادب و قدرت در داده های زبان فارسی، هیچ رابطه ای در پاسخ های جمع آوری شده به زبان انگلیسی مشاهده نشد. از نظر رابطه میان عدم رعایت ادب و قدرت تفاوت معناداری میان داده های زبان فارسی و انگلیسی مشاهده شد. می توان نتیجه گرفت که زبان آموزان انگلیسی به عنوان زبان دوم، علیرغم آگاهی از رابطه میان عدم رعایت ادب و قدرت در زبان اول خود، دانش کافی در مورد این ارتباط در زبان دوم خود ندارند.

اکثر تحقیقات در زمینه کاربردشناسی زبان بینابینی بر روی انجام و یادگیری کارگفتها توسط غیربومی زبانان تمرکز کرده اند و ادب را تنها یک امر جانبی انگاشته اند. تحقیق حاضر مربوط به ادب زبانی می باشد و سعی دارد تأثیر روشهای آموزشی متفاوت را برروی فراگیری مهارتهای ادب در انگلیسی بررسی کند. هشت گروه دانشجویان سال اول و سال سوم رشته های زبان انگلیسی بطور تصادفی به سه گروه آزمایشی (مطالب تقویت شده، تدریس آشکارو ایفای نقش) و یک گروه کنترل (نمایش صرف) تقسیم شدند. شرکت کنندگان در امتحان تافل، امتحان پیش آزمون و پس از آموزش هفت هفته ای مجموعه ای از مهارتهای ادب در امتحان پس آزمون شرکت کردند. نتایج تحقیق نشان داد که آموزش تأثیر معنادار مثبتی بر روی یادگیری مهارتهای ادب دارد و تدریس آشکار موثرترین شیوه آموزشی می باشد. شیوه های ایفای نقش و مطالب تقویت شده در رتبه های دوم و سوم تأثیرگذاری قرار داشتند. همچنین نشان داده شد که اگرچه سطح مهارت عمومی زبان تاثیر معناداری بر روی دانش مهارتهای ادب (توانایی تشخیص مهارت ادب مناسب برای هر موقعیت اجتماعی ) دارد، ولی تأثیری بر روی فراگیری مهارتهای ادب ندارد. یافته ها دلالت بر آن دارند که آموزش مهارتهای ادب را می توان در سطح متوسط شروع کرد و تدریس آشکار به همراه فعالیتهای ایفای نقش برای زبان آموزان بسیارمفید خواهد بود.

This study examined the Iranian EFL learners’ multicultural developmental trend in light of Investment Hypothesis as they furthered their academic studies from BA toward postgraduate levels. In so doing 117 BA, 92 MA, and 35 Ph.D. EFL students at AllamehTabataba’i University, Tarbiat Modarres, and Islamic Azad Universities, Tehran, Iran, were randomly selected to provide answers to Multicultural Personality Traits Questionnaire (MPQ) that measures individuals’ Multicultural Personality Traits (MPTs: Cultural Empathy, Open-Mindedness, Social Initiative, Emotional Stability, and Flexibility). Ph.D. students’ MPTs mean was found to be 277.77; MA students’ MPTs mean score was 272.20; and BA students’ MPTs mean score was 267.96. The ANOVA conducted revealed that EFL Iranian students’ MPTs improved as they furthered their academic career from BA to MA and from MA to Ph.D. levels. The study concluded that advancement in EFL students’ academic career resulted in a concomitant development in their MPTs and among the five MPTs, cultural empathy and social initiative were found to have been significantly improved at Ph.D. level. Among the MPTs, Social initiative provides the highest contribution to social interactions and its significant development at Ph.D. level is confirmatory of the discursive-constructionists’ approach to L2 learning.

مدرسین زبان انگلیسی از گذشته تا کنون از مقیاس هایی جهت ارزشیابی زبان آموزان بهره گرفته اند که حاصل نظرات و تجربیات شخصی و شهودی متخصصین حوزه آموزش زبان بوده است. از آنجایی که این مقیاس ها از مبنای علمی و تجربی لازم برخوردار نیستند، نمرات و نیز تصمیماتی که در نتیجه استفاده از این مقیاس ها حاصل می شود پایایی و اعتبار لازم را ندارند. با توجه به اهمیت گونه نگارش توصیفی و نظر به این نکته که ادبیات تحقیقی موجود هیچ مقیاس نمره دهی تحلیلی مناسبی جهت ارزشیابی این نوع نگارش ارائه نکرده است، نویسندگان این مقاله از طریق انجام مطالعه ای تلفیقی شامل ۳ فاز اقدام به ایجاد مقیاسی تحلیلی جهت ارزشیابی نگارش توصیفی زبان آموزان کردند. این مطالعه در فاز اول (فاز کمی) اقدام به آنالیز فاکتورهای مربوط به تحلیل ۱۷۲ کارشناس آموزش زبان از گونه نگارش توصیفی و در فازهای دوم و سوم (فازهای کیفی) اقدام به تحلیل محتوای ۲۰ متن توصیفی نوشته شده توسط کارشناسان آموزش زبان و نیز تحلیل محتوای۳۰متن توصیفی نوشته شده توسط زبان آموزان کرد. در نتیجه دو استنباط کلی که در طی این مطالعه صورت گرفت، مقیاس نمره دهی تحلیلی برای ارزشیابی نگارش توصیفی زبان آموزان ایجاد شد. امید است بهره گیری از این مقیاس در آینده منجر به دستیابی به نمرات و همچنین اتخاذ تصمیماتی در مورد زبان آموزان گردد که از پایایی و اعتبار بیشتری نسبت به گذشته برخوردارند.

Drawing on the literature on the emergence of different varieties of English in the globalized world, current debates surrounding English as an international language (EIL), and more orientation towards intelligibility and mutual understanding in international communication, this article reports the findings of a quantitative and qualitative research study with 112 native American and British, 120 Indian and 120 Iranian teachers as members of Inner Circle (IC), Outer Circle (OC) and Expanding Circle (EC) (Kachru, 1992) to explore their attitudes towards pronunciation pedagogy within the framework of English as an international language and  how they see their role in relation to different varieties of English. The findings demonstrate the extent to which teachers’ acceptance of pronunciation and varieties of English differs. In particular, the Iranian teachers’ norm-bound orientation was found to be the greatest among the three groups. Native English teachers’ replies were also indicative of their acceptance of different varieties of English. Teachers’ preferences will be discussed with consideration of their attitudes towards varieties of English which might have influenced the construction of English teachers’ identity and the educational policy of each country. The findings also highlight the localization of L2 language planning and policies in an EIL pedagogy. This article argues that, together with encouraging and valuing different varieties of English, it is important to acknowledge and promote ways to raise awareness of teachers and learners towards global spread of English and the realities of English today which can be really helpful to be more realistic and not just blind followers of a particular model. Keywords: Pronunciation, Intelligibility, English as an International Language, Language Awareness, Identity   نگرش معلمان نسبت به انواع انگلیسی جهانی: معیار های تلفظ در زبان انگلیسی و  نوع آموزش تلفظ زبان انگلیسی در لایه های درونی، بیرونی، و رو به گسترش زبان انگلیسی یکی از مهمترین موضوعات در حوزه آموزش زبان توجه به انواع انگلیسی جهانی از دیدگاه تلفظ زبان انگلیسی و نوع آموزش تلفظ می باشد. تمامی افراد حتی غیر بومی ها عضوی از جامعه انگلیسی به عنوان زبان بین المللی می باشند و هیچ گروهی دستور زبانی خاصی راتعیین نمی کند. بومی سازی زبان نقش مهمی در ارتباط میان افراد در یک جامعه خاص را دارد. اهمیت موضوع تلفظ می تواند به دو دلیل اصلی است: اول، ساخت فهم که اشاره به ایجاد یک گفتمان قابل فهم در میان شرکت کنندگان در یک چارچوب ارتباطی دارد. دوم، با در نظر گرفتن نقش اصلی تلفظ درزبان انگلیسی به عنوان زبان بین المللی و راه آن است که شکل آگاهی زبان آموزان نسبت به هویت فرهنگی اجتماعی خود را شکل می دهد .مقاله حاضر با استفاده از روش تجزیه و تحلیل کمی و کیفی به بررسی دیدگاه معلمان در سه لایه زبانی (112 معلم بومی انگلیس و آمریکا: لایه درونی؛ 120 معلم هندی: لایه بیرونی؛ و 120 معلم ایرانی؛ لایه روبه گسترش)، اعتقادات و نگرش آنها نسبت به هنجارهای تلفظ و آموزش آن می پردازد، چرا که آنها می توانند با توجه به عوامل اجتماعی فرهنگی و سیاسی متفاوت  تغییر کنند.  این مطالعه همچنین نسبت به تغییر نگرش معلمین نسبت به انگلیسی بومی و سوق دادن آنها بسوی اهمیت زبان بر اساس قابل فهم بودن و توجه به ارتباط میان مخاطبین تا تلفظ بومی خاص زبا انگلیسی توجه دارد. توجه ویژه به انواع انگلیسی های جهانی و حفظ هویت فرهنگی خود به هنگام یادگیری زبان خارجی از دیگر اهداف این تحقیق می باشد کلمات کلیدی: تلفظ، گفتمان قابل فهم ، انگلیسی به عنوان زبان بین المللی، آگاهی زبانی ،  هویت

To direct m-game to be a possible didactic option for Iranian TVT (Technical Vocational Training) trainees, in this study m-game-mediated (Mobile Game-Mediated) materials delivery was incorporated into the conventional teaching method in the blended ESP reading skill platform. So, 52 male trainees fromTechnical and Vocational College of Isfahan were selected by convenience sampling. Afterwards, 48 trainees were defined as homogeneous using Englishtag Test to learn ESP in 16 triads under two different blended learning scenarios in 18 sessions in the academic year 2014-2015. While the first group of the trainees practiced in the blended learning situation with ready-made displaying device and materials, the second-group trainees practiced the same content through the medium of their own self-made PDA (Personal Digital Assistant) and materials; in this way, their learning performance assessed continuously in and outside the classroom. To employ tree-prong approach, interest survey and focus-group interview were embraced, as well. Overall, descriptive and inferential analyses of the collected data disclosed that trainees who were involved in the process of materials development were more excited and learned more than their counterparts who practiced via prefabricated devices and materials. Consequently, self-made (vs. prefabricated) m-game-mediated blended platform was found to be more liable to teaching and learning ESP reading skill.

Despite the general findings that address the positive contribution of teaching pragmatic features to interlanguage pragmatic development, the question as to the most effective method is far from being resolved. Moreover, the potential of literature as a means of introducing learners into the social practices and norms of the target culture, which underlie the pragmatic competence, has not been fully explored. This study, then, set out to investigate the possible contribution of plays, as a medium of instruction, to the pragmatic development through either explicit or implicit mode of instruction. To this end, 80 English-major university students were assigned to four experimental groups: two literary and two nonliterary groups. One of the literary groups (Implicit Play) received typographically enhanced plays containing the speech acts of apology, request, and refusal and the other (Explicit Play) received the same treatment in addition to the metapragmatic instruction on the acts. The medium of instruction for the nonliterary groups were dialogs containing the given functions; they were also given either enhanced input (Implicit Dialog) or input plus metapragmatic information (Explicit Dialog). Analyses of the four groups’ performance on a Written Discourse Completion Test (WDCT) before and after the treatment did not show any advantage for the literary medium, i.e., there was no significant difference between literary and nonliterary groups. It was rather the mode of instruction that mattered most, where explicit groups outperformed their implicit counterparts. These findings indicate that even though implicit teaching, that is, exposure to enhanced input followed by some awareness-raising tasks, is effective in pragmatic development, it cannot contribute so much to learning as can the explicit instruction

The present study was conducted to examine empirically and systematically the effect of explicit instruction of comprehension strategies on EFL learners’ reading anxiety and reading comprehension in Iranian high schools. To this end, two intact classes (65 students) participated in this study as members of control and experimental groups. The experimental group underwent 10 sessions of reading strategies training based on McNamara, Ozuro, Best, and O’Reilly's (2007) 4-pronged Comprehension Strategy Framework. Data were collected through the employment of Saito, Garza, and Horwitz's (1999) Foreign Language Reading Anxiety Scale (FLRAS) and Preliminary English Test (PET) multiple-choice reading comprehension tests. All the students filled the FLRAS questionnaire and took the reading comprehension test two times, once as a pre-test one week before the beginning of instruction and the other as a post-test one week after the instructional treatment. After the post-test, a group of 7 students who received instruction participated in the focus group interview. T-tests were used to analyze the obtained statistical data. It was revealed that explicit reading strategy instruction was quite beneficial in improving EFL high school students' comprehension and reducing their anxiety level, while reading anxiety and reading comprehension were negatively correlated. The results of the interview with the focus group revealed the positive effect of strategy training on learners' reading comprehension and alleviating reading anxiety. This study rendered some educational implications for materials developers and instructors to invest on reading as a fundamental skill in education.

Particle phrases are defined as prefabricated “chunks” stored and retrieved as a whole from memory at the time of use, rather than being subject to generation or analysis by the language grammar. This study was an attempt to investigate the effect of teaching particle-bound phrases on spoken accuracy of Iranian EEL learners. Having been homogenized, a sample of 51 Iranian EFL learners at a university in Karaj, Iran was assigned to three groups: two experimental and one control. Before the treatment, a pre-test of video-based narrative retelling was administered. The Experimental Group 1 (EG1) was presented with the target particle phrases and came up with drawings of their concepts. In Experimental Group 2 (EG2), the same procedure happened except for the hands-on drawing task. The Control Group (CG) was presented with the same particle phrases every session along with their L1 (Farsi) meanings. The results showed that EG2 (M = 5.16) significantly outperformed CG (M = 3.81) on the immediate posttest (Mean Difference = 1.34, p = .000). It was also found that EG1 (M = 4.82) significantly outperformed CG (M = 3.81) on the immediate posttest (Mean Difference = 1.01, p = .000). Plus, there was not any significant difference between EG1 (M = 5.16) and EG2’S (M = 4.82) means on the immediate posttest (Mean Difference = .334, p = .146). Regarding delayed post-test, it was shown that there was no significant difference between EG1 and EG2 on delayed posttest, but both groups outperformed CG in that regard.

Using chunks is said to bring about fluency into speech as they save speakers from constructing their speech upon a word-by-word basis. Particle phrases (A term coined in this study to refer to phrasal verbs and their derived and deviated nouns and adjectives) are also among those chunks. This study seeks to see whether memorizing them will affect EFL learners' spoken fluency. To this end, 51 Persian speaking participants (37 females, 14 males) who were selected from 3 intact classes based on their performance in narrative video-based retelling constituted the sample of the study. The study was a quasi-experimental one in design because of the non-random assignment of the participants into either of the experimental and control groups. They were assigned to three groups: two experimental and one control. Both experimental groups received the same instructions on metaphorical concepts of particles (out, off, etc.) in the 150 phrasal verbs available in Garnier and Schmitt’s (2015) frequency list. They both engaged in self-generated contexts except that those in the first came up with hands-on task of drawing sketches, too. The control group, however, received none of the above treatments. The results of a one-way ANOVA procedure in the immediate post-test indicated that the participants in the first experimental group significantly outperformed not only the control group, but also the second experimental group that made more relative gains than their counterparts in the control group. The outperformance of the first experimental group was also found in the delayed post-test, which represented the long-term effects of the methods. The findings suggest several implications for this vital but surprisingly neglected issue of engaging students with self-generated sketches.

The role of oral corrective feedback has been investigated by SLA researchers from various perspectives. Focusing on Iranian EFL context, the present study aimed to explore the role of receiving corrective feedback in the learning of English grammatical structures. It also probed the association between the type of corrective feedback and EFL learners’ learning styles. This was an experimental study examining a sample of 128 intermediate-level EFL learners through pretest-posttest control group design. Data of the study was analysed through one-way ANOVA conducted on post-test scores. Results of the study indicated that there were statistically significant differences between experimental groups and control group in terms of receiving feedback. These findings implied the outperformance of the metalinguistic feedback group over recast group and also the superiority of providing EFL learners with feedback compared to no-feedback. The results obtained from two-way ANOVA revealed an effectively significant interaction between the type of oral corrective feedback and the learners’ learning styles. The study discussed how both types of corrective feedback and learning styles could manipulate L2 acquisition which might have some implications for EFL language teachers in the classroom.

Purpose: Investigating the cultural content of EFL textbooks is significant in critical discourse studies. The effect of cultural values on EFL learners’ social identity has been less investigated in the Iranian context. This study aimed at identifying type of cultural values embedded in New Interchange and Passages textbooks in terms of being global, local or glocal and the impact of these textbooks’ cultural values on Iranian EFL learners’ social identity. Methodology: 90 upper-intermediate EFL learners at 2 private language institutes and high schools in the city of Gilanegharb were selected among a population of 120 EFL learners based on taking an Oxford Placement Test (OPT). They were randomly divided into an experimental group (45 learners) and a control group (45 learners). The experimental group received global cultural teaching through exposure to private institute textbooks’ cultural values while the control group was taught through local cultural values embedded in the local textbooks. A Student Identity Questionnaire (SIQ) was used as both pre-test and posttest. Data were analyzed through Independent Sample T-tests using SPSS 21 software. Findings: The results indicated that the most frequent textbook cultural values were social power through the U.S. superiority, social relation through friendship and party, and accomplishments through success. Further analysis showed that the textbook cultural values had a significant impact on social identity scores of Iranian EFL learners showing stronger agreement with global cultural values promoted in the imported textbooks. Discussion: Results had implications for EFL teachers, learners, policy makers and material developers.

This study aimed, firstly, to investigate the underlying components of Iranian cultural identity and, secondly, to confirm the aforementioned components via Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) analysis. In order to achieve these goals, the researchers reviewed the extensive local and international literature on language, culture and identity. Based on the literature and consultations with a group of 30 university undergraduate and post graduate learners English language learners and a cadre of four university professors in the field of sociology, an Iranian EFL Language Learners’ Cultural Identity Model with six components (Nationality, Religion, Arts, Persian Language and Literature, Media, and Globalization) was hypothesized. In order to test and validate the model, a questionnaire was developed. To probe the reliability of the questionnaire, Cronbach’s Alpha was used. The reliability of all the items in the questionnaire was 0.78. To estimate the construct validity of the model, Exploratory Factor Analysis using PCA was performed, which indicated five components (Religion, Arts, Persian Language and Literature, Media, and Globalization) underlying Iranian Cultural Identity. Then, Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) analysis through AMOS 22 was performed to test the model and the interaction among the components. The SEM results confirmed the existence of five factors. Finally, statistical results are discussed and implications are provided.

Learning English as a foreign language in Iran has provided a novel learning milieu for language learners, giving them the capability to create the dialogue between their home culture and the culture of the foreign language they are learning. The current study aims to investigate the level of Iranian EFL learners' cultural identity. To do so, the researchers developed a questionnaire through extensive readings of the literature on language, culture and identity at both national and international levels. To determine the reliability of the questionnaire, Cronbach’s Alpha was utilized. The reliability of all the items in the questionnaire was estimated as 0.78. To measure the validity of the questionnaire, Exploratory Factor Analysis through PCA was performed, demonstrating five underlying factors of Iranian Cultural Identity. Then, the questionnaire was administered to 494 language learners in the context of Iran. The analysis of the data revealed that nearly 68% of the Iranian language learners in the study possess a moderate level of cultural identity.

This paper deals with the contributions of a language teacher education model by Kumaravadivelu (2012) known as KARDS (knowing, analyzing, recognizing, doing, and seeing) to Iranian English as a foreign language (EFL) university teachers’ professional identity reconstruction. The researchers used purposive sampling to select participants. A KARDS questionnaire designed, constructed, and validated by the researchers was used to group twenty teachers into a more KARDS-oriented group and a less-KARDS oriented group. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses showed that the questionnaire was both reliable and valid. Pre-course interview, post-course interview, teacher educator’s and teachers’ reflective journals, and class discussions were used to collect data. After the pre-course interview, there was a treatment during which teachers were familiarized with KARDS. Then, Grounded Theory was used to analyze the data. Findings indicated that there were two big shifts from “uncertainty of practice to certainty of practice” and “the use of fewer macro-strategies to the use of more macro-strategies” in teachers’ professional identities in both groups. The changes were similar and/or the same in nature but not in quantity, and they should be emphasized and included in teacher education programs. The findings may drive teacher education programs, teacher educators, and teachers to welcome and embrace uncertainty and confusion in classrooms. Suggestions to reduce “uncertainty of practice” by teacher education programs and teacher educators are presented in this paper.