مطالب

Granting of intellectual property rights on biological materials could be very contentious issue from cultural, legal, ethical and religious points of view. This could be even more complicated, once it acquires an international dimension. The Agreement on Trade Related Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs) is the latest international arrangement under which, a complex structure for international protection of intellectual property rights has been created. However, while it embodies some provisions of pervious international documents on intellectual property rights, it reflects a unique and unprecedented scheme of protection of intellectual property rights, which also highlights a tension between developed and developing countries especially over the patentability of biological inventions. The provisions of TRIPs make it difficult for developing countries to deny such protection. However, it is possible for them to limit the scope of such protection by relying on exceptions provided by TRIPs and also by relying on the distinction between invention and discovery. These strategies would allow developing countries to exercise some discretion in defining the scope of patentable biotechnologies.

There are nearly 14000 exegetical hadiths, narrated from Prophet's family, collected by some Shi'ah scholars in a number of commentaries well-known as Tafasir –e Ma'thur (traditional commentaries) in Shi'ah. In the 12th century, most of these traditions were collected in the two large collections entitled Al-Burhan fi Tafsir al-Qur'an, the work of Bahrani (d. 1107 A.H), and Nur al-Thaqalayn, the work of Huwayzi (d. 1112 A.H). These hadiths can generally be classified in three categories: 1. the hadiths explaining outward meanings of the Qur'an, 2. the hadiths expressing the inward meanings of the Qur'an, and 3. the hadiths applying the Qur'anic concepts to the certain individuals and groups of people. For example, some verses of the Qur'an have been interpreted as symbols for the Prophet, the Prophet's household and the opponents of the Prophet's family. The last type of traditions is called the hadiths of Jary (flow). The term comes from Shi'ah hadith concerning ta'wil. According to some hadiths, the Qur'an is like the sun and the moon; it flows through history as same as the sun and the moon flows in cosmos. Among 14000 exegetical hadiths of shi'ah, more than 2100 hadiths are classified as hadiths of Jary. These hadiths have been extremely criticized by some of Sunni Muslim scholars. However, some modern Quranic Shi'ah exegetes such as Muhammad Husayn Tabatabayi, the author of Al-Mizan fi Tafsir al-Qur'an hold that it was the method of Imams of Ahl al-bayt to apply a Quranic verse to all things it might be applied to. Nevertheless, our study shows that the numerous traditions in this respect have been fabricated. Many of these hadiths do not possess an authentic chain of narrators. Moreover, most of them came to Shiah hadith books via Ghulat (exaggerators) whom our Imams refused as heretics. In fact some of them are more similar to trite phrases, rather than interpretations of the Quran, like applying "ba'uza" (mosquito)(Q.2:26) to Imam Ali! There are some sound hadiths from the Imams of Shi'ah that they have denied some applications of the verses to themselves. Having clarified main exegetical concepts and presented two classifications of shi'ah exegetical hadiths, this paper examines these kinds of traditions and evaluates them with criticisms in both textual content and narrators through whom these hadiths have been narrated.

This paper provides an Optimality-Theoretic account of dissimilation in standard Persian as well as some other accents and dialects of Persian. As such, this work starts by introducing Optimality Theory (henceforth OT) and its basic concepts and then it investigates dissimilation in this framework. It argues for the superiority of OT over derivational approaches regarding a case in which both dissimilation and assimilation, with no clear feeding order, are involved.

The inhuman acts of Israel in the Gaza Strip (2008-9) have seriously violated the international humanitarian law.International documents such as the Geneva Convention (IV) and Additional Protocol to the Geneva Conventions (II) relating to protecting civilians during armed conflicts have clearly indicated violation of humanitarian law during Israeli’s deadly offensive at the turn of the year. Under these laws and other documents such as Convention on the Rights of the Child, the crimes and violence against Gaza’s children created a particular form of inhuman acts. Also, in accordance with the statute of International Criminal Court, the Israeli onslaught can be called as war crimes and genocide. Considering the violation of fundamental human rights of Gazans in all circumstances, the prosecution of persons who committed the crimes are possible regardless of their nationality or ratification of treaties and conventions.