درخت حوزه‌های تخصصی

“Evil animals” (MP. xrafstar, Av. xrafstra-) are harmful animals created by Ahriman to assist in destroying the world. Pahlavi scriptures present fragments of knowledge on various types of xrafstarân, some regulations and recommendations on how to crush them, and examples of divine reward for those believers who eradicate these evil animals. However, Pahlavi scriptures put urging stress on eliminating xrafstarân, sigillographic evidence from the Sassanid era points to the other direction, showing that in many cases, the Zoroastrian principle of destroying evil animals is ignored, to the extent that images of venomous animals could be seen on seals and sigils belonging to Zoroastrian priests and other elites of the Sassanid era. While in some cases, themes depicted on seals are by the religious recommendations of scriptures, owners’ personal preferences seem to remain the main factor in displaying images on seals. This question remains that depicting an evil animal on a personal seal contradicts religious regulations in Zoroastrianism. This opposition could be caused by diversity in interpretations of scriptures or by the co-existence of various factions of Zoroastrianism. The presence of other religions all over the Sassanid Empire could be one more cause of this discord. Through a comparison between depictions on seals and Pahlavi scriptures, the current study concludes that several images of xrafstarân depicted on seals are related to religions other than Zoroastrian Mithraism, Judaism, Christianism, and even Gnosticism. Moreover, most Zoroastrian scriptures mentioning xrafstarân are written only after the Sassanid era. It seems likely that after the collapse of Sassanid dynastys, some Zoroastrian priests rearranged the classification of beneficent animals created by Ahura and evil animals created by Ahriman. Nonetheless, the vital role of geography and cultural diversity of each region of the vast Sassanid Empire could not be overlooked while studying the presence or absence of animal themes in depictions.

Isfahan and its historical monuments have been repeatedly damaged and destroyed for a long time due to their unique strategic location. They are located on the highway from north to south and east to west of the central plateau of Iran. Factors that have played a role in damaging and destroying Isfahan›s historical monuments can be generally divided into two categories: natural elements and phenomena and human factors and behaviors. This study aimed to identify and categorize the causes of damage to the historical monuments of Isfahan from the beginning of the Islamic period to the Qajar period. To achieve this goal, two general questions arise: What are the main factors that have caused damage to the historical monuments of Isfahan during the Islamic era, and how can they be classified? Which harmful phenomena have caused Isfahan›s most severe destruction of historical monuments? To answer the questions, the destructive factors of Isfahan›s architectural works from the beginning of the Islamic period to the Qajar period have been studied. The research method is descriptive-analytical, and the data collection method is based on the study of historical-geographical sources, field observations, and existing works reports. The studies show that in addition to various factors, the most critical factors causing natural damage to historical monuments in Isfahan are drought, famine, earthquake, and the essential human characteristics; there have been internal or external wars and conflicts.

The relative and long-term stability brought about by the Safavid government in Iran made urbanization and its requirements to be reviewed, next to the issue of public health. Some physicians began to run new experiments and produce treatises. One of these outstanding treatises is the Risala Ateshak, written by Imad al-Din Mahmoud bin Masoud Shirazi. For the first time, by writing an independent treatise, he described the symptoms, methods of prevention, and treatment of syphilis. To him, the treatise issued before his, except that of Baha'u'l-Razi, were not discussed and were considered a phenomenon from abroad (the West). He sought to explain the manners of transmission, prevention, and treatment of this disease in different temperaments through the available methods, which were mostly based on herbal medicine. He also expressed his belief about the effectiveness of consuming Chinese wood in treating this disease. The accuracy of this treatise's contents and its writing period makes it clear that syphilis is not an imported disease contrary to the idea that existed. The reason for our ignorance of its existence was the inability to distinguish it from other diseases.