مطالب

Human rights reflect a natural order from which fundamental freedoms flow. The exercise of human rights reflects this order and these freedoms.  These are the key principles which inspired the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights. International practice, however, shows that, while the importance of human rights is almost universally recognized, in practice the exercise of individual rights is subjected to numerous constraints.  In spite of substantial amounts of legislation enacted around the world to promote and protect human rights, the rise of nationalism and the return of identity politics generate discrimination and hamper dialogue. Increasing constraints imposed by governments on the freedom of the media are an additional obstacle to the fight against injustice.  The international community, however, is not doing enough to tackle this fundamental problem.  The United Nations remain the bedrock of any effort to foster security, stability and prosperity with full respect for human dignity and human rights.  The principle of humanitarian intervention should be further explored with an open mind, since it may provide a key towards more effective policies aimed at addressing serious violations of international humanitarian laws, including genocide, war crimes or crimes against humanity.  Yet, the members of the United Nations are unable and unwilling to reform and modernize its institutions and procedures, beginning with the Security Council, an outdated symbol of power politics inherited from the last century.  Similarly, the effectiveness of the Human Rights Council should be enhanced. The issue of the presence within this Council of States whose democratic credentials are questionable and which appear openly disrespectful towards human rights should be better leveraged to promote human rights standards, to avoid weakening the credibility of the action of this institution.  As human rights cover the whole spectrum of human activities, a special thought should be given to women’s rights, which in many of our countries have been to varying degrees disregarded for centuries.  Important steps have taken place in recent years, especially following the adoption in 1979 of the UN Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women.  A stronger legal basis for all these steps, however, must be ensured to provide the international community with a more effective and efficient tool to address serious cases of discrimination and promote concrete steps toward a real recognition of the equal role that women do play in every aspect of everyday life.  

The international chamber of commerce (ICC) created a generally accepted set of terms called Incoterms 2020 which provides that the risk of loss of or damage to the goods, passes from the seller to the buyer when the seller has fulfilled his obligation to deliver the goods. But this rule is based on a false base, which causes number of exception where the goods are delivered but the risk remains on behalf of the seller. In this paper we will prove that the aim of contract is an unexceptional factor which indicates whether the risk has passed through or still is remained. The aim which has a composite nature and preparing the last part of that nature provides reaching of the goal and is the main reason for transferring the risk of the thing then when the buyer's aim from the contracts is achieved the risk of the goods will be transferred to him and when the seller's aim is achieved the risk of the price will be transferred to him. The aim or cause of the obligation in general is; to acquire the property and the possession which are peaceful and useful of the thing to use and enjoy it with security. So each term will be separately being analyzed by theory of the cause of the obligations in civil law of France and we call this theory which defined the goal as a composite nature the virtual spirit level the theory of the spirit level of the risk.

Energy Justice and Sustainable Development Goals: The Case of Common Gas Field Projects of Iran and Qatar Abstract The issue of exploiting shared resources appears a major controversy i.e. each country try to get more out of common field. Energy justice, as a new concept, seeks to apply the principles of justice in the production and exploitation, distribution and use of energy. This study tries to assess the extent to which Iran-Qatar common field is being exploited within the framework of the three tenets of energy justice. This study intends to identify energy justice in terms of having sustainable development indicators in common gas field of Iran and Qatar. We use the concept of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), especially from Goals that are related to the concept of energy justice to assess the realization of energy justice. The assessment of the tenets of distributional, procedural and recognition justice shows that energy justice is not pursued in joint exploitation of Iran and Qatar