ethics

Kant's demystification is meant to put away any metaphysical and revealed elements from ethics and religion. Kant, fulfilling this, first argues that metaphysical questions of reason, from theoretical aspect, have no certain answers. In practical reason, he establishes his moral foundations, based on own human being without any referring to metaphysical bases. In fact, Kant places human being as the base, legislator and finally the end of ethics, so that the totality of morality is depended on itself him/her and there is no moral reality out of our humanly understanding. Kant, then, by confirming the necessity of rational religion, believes that the age of revealed religions have been expired, since they were belonged to the childhood age of human being’s reason, while in Kant’s rational religion, this is human being’s subjective intellect that defines the nature and function of God. Therefore, for Kant’s moral and rational religion, there is no credibility for affairs like miracles, blessings and prayers, since they indicate religious misguidance. In Kant’s rational pure religion, the religion is relied on human being’s pure reason in which his/her reason is the only criterion of religious beliefs. Therefore, for Kant, religion means recognizing our duties as divine judgments, and that such religion pertains to our mundane life not for worshiping God in order to get his satisfaction or benefitting his grace. In short, Kant’s religion and morality are totally depended on our humanly and earthy rationality and understanding, and that there is no mystery out of our humanly willing. So the mysteries that are claimed by revealed religions are meaningless, since our reason, itself, determines the nature, function and virtues of God, moral axioms and religious beliefs.

Since Kant is a son of his time, his thought is originally rooted in the Enlightenment. The distinction between theoretical and practical reason, formal and material conscientiousness, authentic and doctrinal theodicy, sincerity and falsehood, and finally, historical and moral faith religion, are implications of the court held by Kant for metaphysics. Meanwhile, Kantian distinction between deism and theism in one hand, and inclination toward Job and Christ as the symbols of moral faith of religion in the other hand, can be explained by the German Protestantism of the age of Fredrick the Great and his successor. The theology based on practical reason criticizes rationalism in faith and suggests perception of religion through morality. But, Aquinas as a Christian catholic emphasizes on historical religion, revealed religion, Divine legislation, faith in Divine worship and ecclesiastical faith. Aquinas is the most distinguished supporter of rational theology. However, he believed to other kind of theology named theologia sacrae scripturae or sacred theology which its main subject is Divine beings. The main bases of Aquinas‘s ethics are revelation and foundations of church. Kant, in the contrary, tries to make room for faith inside the realm of morality and speak of practical reason theology through denial of theoretical reason.  

No doubt, Gottlob Frege and A. J. Ayer are considered to be among the most prominent contemporary philosophers. Insofar as one of them has revolutionized the linguistic domain while the other has influenced the domain of ethics in a diametrical fashion. Ayer’s theory of emotivism is regarded as one of the most controversial moral theories in the past century. We believe that Frege, as a linguistic philosopher, has influenced emotivism in the methodological, logical, semantic, and epistemological domains. The emphasis on two fundamental principles of “compositionality” and “contextuality”; “the existence of mathematical concepts independent from mind”, “empiricism and verificationism” are all variables upon which emotivism is clearly dependent. The latter claim can be substantiated via analysis of the works of Ayer and particularly his “Language, Truth, and Logic” as well as his assertion in the introduction to this book concerning his debt to Frege. Among the most significant results of this essay, one can refer to the demonstration of the point that what constitutes the identity of the theory of emotivism is influenced by the “general line of linguistic analysis” in the aforementioned four domains.

Background: The issue of ethics in commercial relations between the buyer and the seller is highly significant and if there are no solutions to ethical problems in these areas, the continuation of this process will lead to a shake-up in trade and commercial communications from the lower layers that are consumers up to the upper layers that are major traders. The first articles on ethical issues were published in the 1960s and were mostly philosophical articles. In such an atmosphere, having a good understanding of consumerschr('39') ethical behaviors and the process of consumption includes several advantages. These benefits include helping managers in their decision making, providing a cognitive basis through analyzing consumer behavior, helping legislators, and regulators to lay down rules for the purchase and sale of goods and services, and ultimately for consumers in the decision-making process. The purpose of this study is to investigate ethics in the of sports consumer behavior. In fact, researchers have found that observing ethical issues in transactions not only from the seller and the marketerchr('39')s side, but also, from the consumerchr('39')s side is important. Conclusion: The results of the review of the research done on the relationship between ‎individual factors such as age, gender, religion, and moral intensity show that in most cases, ‎these variables have had an impact on ethical decision making. Therefore, further research in ‎this area should be made to clarify the certainty of these effects.‎

Background: “Organizational trauma" and "organizational ethics” are the key variables of interest to researchers in the field of organizational management. Therefore, the present study examined the relationship between organizational trauma and organizational ethics of staff in Urmia University and sought to determine whether organizational trauma has a significant relationship with organizational ethics. Method: This study is applied, from the perspective of purpose; and descriptive-correlational, from that of research design. A sample of 230 employees was randomly drawn out of 630 employees of Urmia University as the statistical population. The data was collected using two standard questionnaires of organizational trauma and organizational ethics, and analyzed using partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). Results: The results showed that organizational trauma can overshadow organizational ethics up to 33 percent. The path coefficient of organizational trauma and organizational ethics variables was measured to be 2.52, which is more than 1/96 at the error rate of 0.05. Conclusions: According to the statistical results, research hypothesis was confirmed, and it was concluded that organizational trauma has a significantly negative impact on organizational ethics.

Background: The present study focuses on the importance of observing professional ethics codes by global media. The main objective of this study is to emphasize the necessity of providing ethical codes for global media. Global media ethics aims at developing a comprehensive set of principles and standards for the practice of journalism in age of globalization. This study has reviewed the main interrelated theory regarding ethics, morality and media. The media ethics codes of different countries have been examined under the research. The study findings show that the ethics dominating the media of each country comes from the values, norms, and code of conduct existing in that society; accordingly, there is a direct relationship between media ethics code and the values and norms of a society or culture. Conclusion: Based on the study’s literature review, theoretical framework and the comparison analysis of the different media ethics codes, the article introduces an applicable ethical guideline and the main strategic professional ethics codes for global media.

Background: Accounting information has many users, which comprise business holders, managers, investors, creditors and the government for tax and regulatory resolves. A businessman use financial statements to define particular information that will guide him in making vital business decisions. Accounting impacts a wide range of parties in society. From this point of view, accounting’s codes of ethics are important. Conclusion: Ethical codes are the essential principles that accounting professionals choose to abide by to enhance their profession, preserve public trust, and reveal honesty and fairness. Proper ethics and ethical behavior are tremendously important in accounting for a variety of motives. In the same way it is important that the industry itself does not become pilloried as an unethical one, something that could potentially destruction business for all accounting firms. Ethics and integrity are valued features in an accountant. They must know right from wrong and always parade integrity in his or her accounting and bookkeeping deeds

Background: Dogmatism is a global challenge in recent years. Terrorist groups such as Taliban, Al Qaeda, Al-shabab, ISIS, Jondollah and so on are some example in recent century. Hence, what is more attended today is the religious dogmatism. It doesn’t mean that there are no other forms of dogmatism. Various kinds of dogmatism in political, racial and ethnical forms are developed in modern societies. Because of forming close mind manner, dogmatism in each form is in opposite of ethics. Therefore, this study tries to consider the ethical and social consequences of dogmatism in societies. Conclusion: With prevalence of dogmatism, ethical foundations are weakened and wellbeing will be replaced with violence and autarchy. In such societies, trust, adjustment and social cooperation will be decreased.

Background: Eco-theism is a science that studies the relationship between natural phenomena and problems of religious knowledge, e.g. “infidelity and belief”. The current study has been conducted in order to assay the relationship between the religious problems like “belief and infidelity” and nature and is a subcategory of environmental ethics. We intend to answer the question that whether there is a negative or positive relationship between belief and nature or not? According to Islam, some of natural and material events or in other words, natural actions and reactions are the result of individual vision and action. While materialistic perspective opposes this view and interprets this type of action and reactions in materialistic terms. Studying Quranic verses and prophetic traditions one reaches the conclusion that there is a relationship between people’s vision and degree of belief, on the one hand, natural problems, on the other hand. Conclusion: The present study is composed of two parts: first, we provide an explanation of the concepts of infidelity and faith and then in the second part we proceed to explain and analyze the relationship between the type of action of people and nature as well as the impact of the type of people’s belief. The method is descriptive-analytic. Thus, first religious texts will be discussed and next we will analyze its relationship with natural phenomena. The results suggest that although natural developments take place through their natural course, these natural developments do not have merely material color rather natural events evolve within a metaphysical context.

Background: This study was an attempted to identify human resource productivity indices by emphasizing scientific and ethical factors in service organizations. Method: the research method was mixed method (qualitative - quantitative). In terms of the qualitative research, the indicators were extracted via analyzing studies conducted both inside the country and outside the country, and semi-structured interviews were conducted with 20 university professors and experts using purposeful sampling method. The categories and propositions were identified by 26 indices and categorized into two dimensions of ethics-commitment and technical-technological under the general scientific-ethical factor set. In terms of quantitative research, a researcher-made questionnaire with Cronbachchr('39')s alpha of 0.988 was administered to 250 managers and staff experts of Ardebil Education Department with the aim of validating the qualitative results. Results: Based on confirmatory factor analysis results of both dimensions, the correlation coefficients indices between all variables and the present variables (dimensions) are significant since their T-values is significance at the alpha level of 0.05 and the fit indices of NFI, CFI, IFI in both dimensions are greater than 0.9. Conclusion: The results revealed that the measurement model of research variables on dimensions of ethical-commitment and technical and technological is appropriate. Also, the results of the present research can be applied in measuring and evaluating human resources productivity of service organizations in order to improve productivity and development of the organization.

Background: The aim of this study was to identify the components and factors affecting teacherschr('39') professional ethics and provide a model. Method: The method of the present study was mixed (qualitative-quantitative) and in terms of purpose it was applicable research. The statistical population in the qualitative section included faculty member (disciplines of philosophy, sociology and education) and teachers who were theoretically familiar with the concept of professional ethics and therefore their selection was purposeful by sampling method. 20 people were interviewed until they reached theoretical saturation. Data was analyzed at three levels of open, central and selective coding. Validity of data assessed by ideas of experts and for reliability, the coefficient of agreement between the coders was used, which was 0.81. In the quantitative part, the statistical population was all primary school teachers in Tehran (7515) in the academic year 2018-2019, which according to Krejcie and Morgan table, 367 people were selected as the sample size by multi-stage cluster sampling method. The research tool was a researcher-made questionnaire. Reliability of which was obtained by Cronbachchr('39')s alpha test of 0.85 Data were analyzed by SPSS, Lisrel and Amos softwares. Results: The findings showed that the components of professional ethics included "psychological characteristics", "communication-social characteristics", "technical-specialized characteristics" and "belief characteristics" and the effective factors included four factors: economic, social, organizational and individual. Quantitative results also showed that the professional ethics model can be predicted up to about 0.70 by the identified factors and the overall fit of the model was also confirmed (GOF = 0.44). Conclusion: Considering the predictive power of the identified factors for professional ethics, it can be concluded that the proposed model can be a good framework for improving the professional ethics of teachers.

Background: The present study was conducted with the aim of designing a model of normal ethical marketing in the hotel industry. Method: This research is qualitative in terms of purpose, exploratory in terms of approach, and qualitative in terms of data analysis. The statistical population was a group of hotel industry experts from whom a total of 9 people were selected as the sample by purposive sampling and theoretical saturation. The research tool was in-depth interviews. Data were analyzed using theme analysis methodology. Results: According to the results of the study, the main category in this study was "the attention of hotel industry managers to ethical marketing norms." Causal conditions include knowledge of ethical norms, emphasis on upstream rules on ethical norms in marketing, modeling of the world hotel industry, training courses for hotel managers and staff on ethical norms in marketing and reforming and improving the reward and punishment system in line with ethical norms He was in the marketing of the hotel industry. Areas included "Emphasis on Ethical Decision-Making at All Levels of the Organization" and "Ethical Organizational Culture", and environmental conditions included "Societychr(chr('39')39chr('39'))s desire to comply with ethical marketing norms in the hotel industry" and "Economic problems in the country." Strategies also included the categories of "ethical hospitality" and "compliance with organizational social responsibility", which led to the consequence of "customer satisfaction of the hotel industry". Conclusion: The results of the research led to the design of a model of ethical marketing in the hotel industry and showed that ethics is a fundamental element and in developing marketing models for the hotel industry, special attention should be paid to this important issue.

Background: Green human resource management is a new topic in the field of human resource management that emphasizes the goal of environmental sustainability. Unfortunately, the growing environmental challenges on the one hand and the neglect of ethical components related to the environment and human resource management in organizations, have created obstacles to the implementation of green human resource management. Therefore, the present study was formed with the aim of investigating the factors that violate ethics that hinder the implementation of green human resource management. Method: The present study was among the applied researches with a field-survey approach. The study population was experts and specialists in the field of Tehran automotive industry, from which 8 people were purposefully selected as a sample. The tools of analysis were interview and dematel questionnaire. Data were analyzed by fuzzy dematel and fuzzy hierarchical analysis (AHP). Results: Ethical barriers affecting the implementation of green human resource management in three dimensions of organizational, environmental and individual were identified in the form of 51 sub-criteria. The results of weight determination showed that the environmental dimension is one of the causal dimensions and organizational and individual dimensions are effective dimensions and environmental factors are the most important. Conclusion: Organizations, especially in the field of automobile manufacturing, need to have forces aware of the environment. In this way, green human resource management can play an important role in creating green and environmentally friendly ideas by creating a sense of responsibility in its actions and tasks and in cooperation with other forces. Undoubtedly, the first step in training employees to prepare for the implementation of environmental issues is to teach environmental ethics and remove ethical barriers to green human resource management. So that the organization can participate in environmental protection by motivating employees and creating a sense of responsibility in them.

Background: The aim of this study was to compare the ethical status of public and non-profit elementary school students. Method: The method of the present study was descriptive-correlational and in terms of purpose, it is an applied study. The statistical population of the whole elementary students of the second period (fourth to sixth grades) in Tehran in the academic year 2018-2019, based on Krejcie and Morgan table, 531 people were selected as the sample size and the sampling method was stratified sampling. The research instrument was Latifabadi Moral Development Questionnaire (2005), the validity of which was confirmed by the views of professors of psychology and educational sciences and its reliability was obtained by Cronbachchr('39')s alpha test (0.89). Data were analyzed through descriptive and inferential statistics by SPSS 24 software. Results: Data analysis showed that there is a significant difference between the moral status of non-profit and public schools (p <0.05). In other words, the average of moral status in non-profit schools is slightly higher. There was a significant difference between the moral status of boyschr('39') and girlschr('39') schools (p <0.05). There was a significant difference between non-profit and public girlschr('39') schools (p <0.05), but there was no significant difference between non-profit and public schools for boys (p <0.05). Conclusion: Based on the research findings, it can be said that non-profit schools have a better moral status than public schools.

Many types of research are carried out in the field of ELT. Therefore, different types of studies are performed by post-graduate students, teachers, professors, and researchers. However, the main concern of the present article is that whether the post-graduate students, teachers, and professors have the necessary knowledge on three important research points: validity, reliability, and ethics. To this end, this article discusses these three issues and sheds some light on them. In fact, validity is concerned with the correctness of inferences according to the results and instruments. Meanwhile, reliability deals with the quality and consistency of the data collection procedures. In order to calculate the reliability of the data, Cohen Kappa’s inter-rater agreement is presented and explained by means of a vivid example. Finally, ethics is an area of moral philosophy concerning the rules by which behavior needs to be directed. Finally, some means and ways of increasing and enhancing the validity, reliability, and ethics of the research are introduced and elaborated on. By providing comprehensive details and vivid examples, this article can be useful and helpful to post-graduate students, teachers, professors, and researchers in carrying out research and ensuring and quarantining their data, data collection procedures, and instruments.

Background: Basically, in any contract, the parties estimate their potential profit and loss and then enter into a contract. However, sometimes the circumstances and circumstances of the time of the contract change so much and make the implementation of the contract heavy and costly. In these circumstances, the implementation of the contract is difficult. This study aimed to investigate the difficulty of contract implementation in Iranian Civil code and commerce from an ethical perspective. Conclusion : In jurisprudence, there is a special rule called "invalidity of the whole contract with the excuse of fulfillment in content", which has become one of the general rules of contracts in jurisprudence. This rule implies the concept that if after the conclusion of the contract, the fulfillment of the obligations arising from the contract becomes impossible forever, the implementation of the content of the contract and its obligations is not necessary and the transaction is void. Iranian law deals with this issue in Articles 227 and 229 of the Civil Code, and conditions such as foreignness and the inevitability and unpredictability of the excuse are considered for the realization of the title of excuse for the execution of the contract. The realized excuse, as the case, will cause the contract to be dissolved or its execution to be suspended until the obstacle is removed.

Background: As societies have become more complicated to manage, it is already unavoidable for governments to evaluate public policies. Moreover, adherence to professional ethics is an important criterion in evaluations. Therefore, the present research sought to provide a model for public policy evaluation based on the aspects of professional ethics. Method: The approach of the present study was mixed (qualitative- quantitative) and in terms of purpose it was applicable research. In the qualitative section, participants included academic experts and governorate experts of Golestan province, 14 of whom were selected by purposive sampling. The research tool was semi-structured interviews and coding method was used to analyze the data. In the quantitative part, the statistical population was the managers and experts of the governorate and governorates (630 people) that the sample size was 248 people and the sampling method was random. Data collection tool was a researcher-made questionnaire based on qualitative findings. Friedman statistical test with Spss26 software was used to analyze the data. Cronbach's alpha test was used for the validity of the questionnaire from the perspective of experts and its reliability (0.91). Results : The results showed that from the experts' point of view, 6 main themes (quality of effective evaluators in policy, ethical nature of policy, how policy is implemented, factors related to economic planning, openness and accountability and attention to structural issues) and 19 components in public policy evaluation model emphasizing the quality of the dimensions of professional ethics in the governorates of the country. Quantitative results showed that the ethical nature of the policy was the most important component of the general policy evaluation model with emphasis on professional ethics (M = 5.23). Conclusion : It can be concluded that the public policy evaluation model with an emphasis on professional ethics has different cultural, economic, social, and professional elements, which for better governance of provincial governments, they must be considered by executive authorities at the country’s macro and micro levels.

Abstract Background: The present study aims to reveal the important role of subjective knowledge and perceived reliability for information in transforming purchasing intentions into a practical purchase in the consumer marketing literature and suggests that improving consumer knowledge and trust in corporate claims (based on On ethics), with the disclosure and public dissemination of quality information such as the participation of retailers and manufacturers in fair trade and related activities, especially in strengthening the sale of fair trade products. Method: The present study is applied and descriptive-correlational. The statistical population included buyers of convenience store stores in Urmia metropolis, from which 385 people were randomly selected. The research tool was a researcher-made questionnaire. Finally, the data were analyzed using structural equation modeling (Minimum Squares (PLS)) in SPSS software version 24 and SMARTPLS. Results: The results show that without strengthening the basic knowledge of consumers or improving their literacy, lack of knowledge probably prevents the growth of ethical consumption, so one of the most important factors to strengthen fair consumption is not the amount of information but especially the content and quality of information. Companies must enable consumers to obtain sufficiently reliable information to compare products based on ethical considerations (ie, fair trade). Conclusion: Subjective knowledge modulates the positive relationship between purchasing intentions and ethical purchasing behavior, but the moderating role of perceived reliability for information was not significant.

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to examine the modeling of HRM and ethics management by solving the crisis in media organizations. Methodology: The statistical population of the present study was all managers of media organizations in 2016, 120 of them were selected as sample in a targeted sampling method (79 male managers and 41 female ones). In this research, organizational agility questionnaire, Organizational Ethics Questionnaire (CEP) and Organizational Conflict Questionnaire were used to collect data on factors affecting agility. The conceptual model of the research was tested using structural equation modeling. Findings: The findings of the path analysis indicated that the model has a suitable fitting and all factor loads of markers on the variable are significant on the organizational agility variable and all direct path coefficients of the model are significant at alpha level 0.01. According to these results, organizational agility with impact factor (beta) 0.29 affects ethics management. Finally, ethics management with a coefficient of effect (beta) 0. 67 affects the resolution of the media organizations' crisis. Discussion: Ethics management is able to mediate organizational agility and solve the crisis of media organizations. Organizational agility with an impact on ethics management is capable of indirectly affecting the resolution of the media organizations' crisis. Therefore, attention to learning agility and attention to ethics management in organizations can be one of the main strategies for managing crisis management in organizations.