Indonesia

Throughout history until today, the Islamic world has been witness to various movements which have been formed in response to special demands. The current article aims to address the similarities and differences between the political thought [1] of the Islamic Revolution of Iran and two movements in Indonesia namely the Nahdatul Ulama (NU) and the Muhammadiyah movements using a descriptive-comparative method. The research findings show that some similarities exist between these movements regarding a) unity of the Muslim world and b) political liberties (role of people in politics); however, some differences are apparent in other areas such as a) governance model and its type, b) type of the relationship between religion and politics and the issue of modernity. [1]. Political thought deals with the issues pertaining to the realms of government and governance also involving such matters as the relationship between religion and politics, type of governance, characteristics of governance and Islamic system, legislation based on the Islamic Law (Sharia), role of people and parties in religious governance, the unity of the Muslim world, role of women in religious governance and their approach to modernity.

The emergence of Non Government Organizations (NGOs) in various fields of life is proof that civil society is essential in building a democratic society. NGOs can educate citizens and communities on their fundamental rights to create a democratic state and world order life. NGOs in Indonesia and Egypt have played a significant role in strengthening democratic movements by empowering civil society. This study examines NGOs’ role in democratization in Indonesia during the reign of President Suharto and Egypt under the leadership of President Hosni Mubarak. In carrying out their functions, NGOs take a stand as a balancing force for the state and agents of community empowerment. The NGOs’ elements struggle in producing an ideal democratic society order in these two countries facing their respective challenges. Some NGOs challenge building democratic society such as military domination, party hegemony systems, and robust state control over society. To encourage democratization in Indonesia and Egypt, NGOs have contributed to building democratic practices, improving democratic performance, strengthening civil rights, monitoring elections, and promoting corruption eradication. The strengthening of democracy by NGOs in Indonesia and Egypt has impacted building political openness, awareness of citizens' political rights, and pro-society public policies.

As formulated in the Preamble to the 1945 Constitution, Pancasila represents the core values agreed upon during the meetings of the Body of Investigators for Preparatory Efforts for Indonesian Independence and the Preparatory Committee for Indonesian Independence. These values were subsequently adopted as the Foundation of the Indonesian State. However, the question persist regarding whether Pancasila can be considered as the grundnorm within Hans Kelsen’s framework in his pure theory of law. This study finds that the grundnorm, as the highest source of legal obligation, is accepted as a necessity by individuals as a necessity through their free will and is inherently perceived as true. It exists in the practical reason of each individual, is a priori, and is never formalized through state processes. Pancasila, although fundamental, cannot be equated with the grundnorm as its authority as the source of all state laws derives not from its content but from its formal declaration by legislative and executive bodies. Despite this, Pancasila serves as a unifying foundation that reconciles differences in ethnicity, race, and religion, ensuring Indonesia’s sustainable existence, transcending merely being a source of legal obligation.