محمد ظهرابی

Teacher factors encompass the teachers’ cognitive and affective characteristics that are likely to affect their instructional efficacy. Language teacher immunity is one of the affective factors that determines the teachers’ psychological well-being in their settings. The present study strived to itemize the factors in novice and experienced EFL instructors’ teacher immunity philosophy. To this end, first, the researchers used convenience sampling for selecting 62 EFL teachers including 38 novice and 24 experienced teachers at ten prominent language institutes in Tabriz (Iran) as the participants. Second, they conducted 30-minute interviews with the participants for determining the factors that influenced their TI philosophy using a researcher-developed semi-structured interview protocol. Lastly, they used thematic analysis in order to particularize the main factors in their teacher immunity philosophy. The findings of the study indicated that while the novice teachers considered external support as the main factor in their philosophy, the experienced teachers regarded their internal strength as the decisive factor that influenced their teacher immunity philosophy. The findings may have practical implications for teacher education courses in foreign language contexts.

Willingness to communicate is subject to the moment-by-moment fluctuations in the classroom. Therefore, teachers’ decisive role comes to the foreground as they can increase learners’ desire to communicate at a particular moment by their interventions. Online instruction, despite furnishing learners with authentic material, has failed to culminate in communication thanks to connection problems or lack of non-verbal clues. Thus, the present study aimed to explore Iranian EFL teachers’ perceptions of strategies to promote willingness to communicate of learners in online classes. The mixed-methods design was employed to answer the research questions. To this end, a self-designed questionnaire was first piloted and then administered to the main sample which included thirty-seven teachers. The questionnaire subsumed five effective factors garnered from extant literature. Five teachers were interviewed as to their perceptions of pros and cons of promoting WTC in online classrooms. The results indicated that teachers’ motivational strategies were perceived to promote WTC best in online classes followed by teacher immediacy. Qualitative reports also corroborated the numerical data. Lack of non-verbal clues i.e. body language was perceived to decrease learners’ motivation and participation; however, technological resources like games were reported to increase WTC in online classes. Teachers should pay heed to their crucial role in inciting positive atmosphere and get better equipped to capitalize on online affordances to increase participation in online classes.

The philosophy of education is an important issue in learning and teaching. Also, the relationship between teachers’ power and abilities can tremendously influence the learners. The purpose of this article is to explore the practice of power bases and Leech’s (1983) politeness maxims among Iranian teachers. A descriptive-qualitative method is used in this research. To this end, nineteen sessions of five classes of five different teachers in a private institute were audio-recorded and transcribed. In the second step of this study, the learners were asked to fill out a questionnaire consisting of 25 Likert-scale items relating to power and politeness issues. In the last stage, four teachers were asked to take part in an interview with the researchers for gathering the complementary data. The classes being observed were chosen based on the rules of convenience sampling method and among young-adult, pre-intermediate learners. The results revealed that Legitimate power among the power base uses and Tact maxim among the politeness maxim practices were the mostly used types of all. Also, it was concluded that in most cases, teachers used one form or a combination of politeness maxims with the practice of power bases.

The present study strived to determine the utility of tailor-made and learner-difference-based teacher education for the amelioration of the EFL teachers’ productive teacher immunity. To this end, 62 EFL teachers were selected from 12 language institutes in Urmia, Iran. The participants were randomly assigned to an experimental and a control group, and were asked to complete the teacher immunity questionnaire prior to the onset of the treatment sessions. In the treatment phase of the study, the experimental group received a tailor-made teacher immunity education on the basis of the overarching sub-constructs of the teacher immunity construct using a web conferencing system in ten sessions during a 5-week period. Notwithstanding, the control group received a learner-difference-based teacher education based on the predominant learner factors. Finally, both groups filled out the pertinent teacher immunity questionnaire anew, in order to examine the efficacy of the aforementioned treatments for the betterment of the teachers’ productive teacher immunity. The results of the study accentuated the fact that the EFL instructors’ teacher immunity was not impervious to the teacher education intervention. Furthermore, the tailor-made teacher immunity education had a more favorable impact on the improvement of the teachers’ productive teacher immunity. The findings might provide teacher educators with certain guiding principles that might empower them to revamp the current teacher education courses and tailor their education to meet the language teachers’ needs.

یک رابطه بسیار نزدیک بین زبانشناسی و فلسفه وجود دارد. در طول تاریخ، این دو حوزه تاثیرات بسزایی بر روی هم داشته اند. زبانشناسان همواره تلاش کرده اند تا معنی کلمات را از جهات مختلف بررسی کنند. به همین منوال، فلاسفه همیشه کوشیده اند تا کلمات و معانی آنها را در بافت های پیرامونی و زبانی متعدد بکار ببرند. با توجه به اینکه کلمات و عبارات، تنها ابزار و وسیله فلاسفه برای انتقال افکار و عقایدشان می باشد، آنها کلمات و عبارات را با دقت بسیار بالایی انتخاب و بکار می گیرند. زبانشناسان نیز می کوشند تا این کلمات و عبارات را از جنبه های گوناگون از جمله ساختواژشناسی، معناشناسی و منظورشناسی بررسی کنند. در این مقاله، سعی بر آن است تا کلمات و معانی آنها از منظر معناشناسی و منظورشناسی بررسی شود. در این راستا، برخی مفاهیم کلیدی که نقش بسزایی در فاسفه دارند مانند معنای صریح (معنای هسته ای) و معنای ضمنی (معنای مضاعف، احساسی و نگرشی) مورد بحث و بررسی قرار می گیرند. همچنین، برخی روش های مهم دیگر برای بررسی متون فلسفی بر اساس پیش فرض، انسجام دستور زبانی و انسجام معنایی مورد کنکاش واقع می شوند. امید است که این مقاله بتواند هم برای زبانشناسان و هم برای فلاسفه مفید واقع شود.

Vocabulary and grammar are two significant components of English which learners often find challenging in their process of learning English as a foreign language (EFL). Therefore, finding the best way to teach grammar and vocabulary has always been a controversial issue among English teachers and researchers. The present study is an attempt to investigate the effect of dictogloss (DG) task, as one of the focus on form techniques, on EFL learners’ vocabulary versus grammar development. To this end, a quasi-experimental design was utilized to examine the effectiveness of the treatment. In this design, two classes were chosen, one as the experimental group (n=20) and the other as the control group (n=20). The participants were 40 female learners of English as a foreign language at intermediate level. In the experimental group the selected grammatical structures and vocabulary were taught using the DG technique, while in the control group the traditional method of teaching, present-practice-produce was used. The results gained from comparing pretest and posttest scores indicate that, although the experimental group outperformed the control group in learning vocabulary, there was no statistically significant difference between the experimental and control group regarding grammar scores. Therefore, it can be concluded that using DG task was more effective on vocabulary learning of learners than grammar development. The findings of this study will be of help for both English teachers and learners regarding finding the best method of teaching and learning English grammar and vocabulary.

Among the latest efficient approaches in language teaching, Task-based Language Teaching has turned up to be the main approach in a way that it is currently recognized as the leading teaching approach in language instruction (Ji & Pham, 2017). Using the proper tasks based on the proficiency level of the learners can facilitate the process of language learning. The present study aimed at investigating the effect of open and closed tasks on improving Iranian EFL learners’ oral performance at intermediate and advanced levels. This study is a quasi-experimental research with pretest and posttest design. The participants of the study included 55 female EFL learners at Jahadeh Daneshgahi language institute in Tabriz city, who were selected through cluster random sampling method. The data were collected through 10 open tasks and 10 closed tasks along with an oral pretest and an oral posttest checklist that examined grammar, pronunciation, vocabulary, breakdown-response, interaction, and speech flow of learners’ oral performance. The tasks were selected from the Four Corner series (Richards & Bohlke, 2012). The data were analyzed by a two-way MANCOVA test and ANCOVA. The obtained results indicated that open and closed tasks can improve EFL learners’ oral performance and there is no significant difference between open and closed tasks in developing learners’ oral performance in both levels. Besides, at the advanced level, the amount of oral performance development is greater than the intermediate level. The outcomes of this study can be useful for EFL teachers and learners regarding using the optimal kind of tasks in improving oral performance.

It is now generally accepted that academic writing is a social activity by which the authors negotiate with their audience to gain community acceptance for their findings. One of the ways to achieve such an acceptance is by establishing intertextual links to prior research using citation. Despite a vast research on the topic and suggestion of typologies for the form and function of citation in academic writing, few studies have focused on the rhetorical functions of citations. Using Swales' (1990) and Samraj’s (2013) typologies and analyzing 45 research articles from five high impact factor journals in the field of Applied Linguistics, this paper aims to identity the forms and rhetorical functions of citations in the Discussion sections of these articles. The analysis of the forms shows an overwhelming tendency towards using non-integral citations. Studying the functions of citations indicates that citations are used with various rhetorical functions: to compare the findings; support the explanations; to support the interpretations; and to support the recommendations. It is concluded that by referring to literature, applied linguists contextualize their propositions and try to use it as a support for their research claims in order to persuade their audience of their research outcomes soundness. The findings can enhance our understanding of the reasons behind choosing citations in various parts of discussion section and can be turned into pedagogical materials and raise rhetorical consciousness through teaching those choices explicitly to ESL students

Research on teacher cognition concerning listening instruction has not been sufficiently touched upon. The present case study aimed to investigate Iranian EFL teachers' stated practices, their perceptions of how effective those practices are, and their actual classroom practices of two casual process-oriented listening instructional approaches namely, strategy-based instruction (SBI) and metacognitive instruction (MCI). To this end, a mixed methods design was utilized. Five experienced EFL teachers were required to be observed and to fill a self-report questionnaire. The findings from the questionnaire revealed teachers' relative but insufficient use of the two process-oriented approaches. Regarding the effectiveness of the process-oriented approaches, the majority of the techniques were perceived by the teachers as effective. Also, the result of the observation showed that process-oriented approaches were conspicuously absent in the teachers' actual classroom practices. Finally, pedagogical implications for EFL teachers, teacher educators, and material developers concerning how best to teach listening are discussed.

If we are keen to boost the process of language learning, we need to study every aspect and component of our course. To this end, we carry out an investigation in which every detail of the course is put under microscope. Assessment of a course is an attempt in which different type of information is gathered systematically in order to study the working of a language instruction program. Certainly, program evaluation might be carried out for fulfilling different goals and purposes. Therefore, an evaluator should clarify the audience and the objectives of conducting program evaluation from the very beginning in order to obtain some adequate results.  Different researchers have presented different proposals for the specific time of collecting data, type of data, and procedures of gathering data. Consequently, an evaluator should be familiar with the different dimensions of program evaluation. Also, some researchers treat program evaluation as a neat product, i. e. merely consisting of learners’ end of instruction scores. Yet, others consider program evaluation as a process. At this juncture, the important issue is the selection of an appropriate design for the implementation of the actual process of the evaluation. It is suggested that the illuminative modelis rather a proper design for program evaluation because of its different advantages. This article attempts to shed some light on the dimensions, goals, and design of the course study.

Over the last few years, the realm of foreign language learning has witnessed an abundance of research concerning the effectiveness of corrective feedback on the acquisition of grammatical features, with the study of other target language subsystems, such as pronunciation, being few and far between. In order to bridge this gap, the present study intended to investigate and compare the immediate and delayed effect of explicit (overt) and implicit (covert) corrective feedback (CF) on treating segmental word-level pronunciation errors committed by adult EFL learners of an institute in Tabriz named ALC. To this end, through a quasi-experimental study and random sampling, three groups were formed, an explicit, an implicit and a control group, each consisting of 20 low proficient EFL learners. Besides, considering the levels that learners were assigned to, based on the institute’s criteria, a Preliminary English Test (PET) was administered in order to determine the proficiency level of learners. Having administered the pretest before treatment, to measure the longer-term effect of explicit vs. implicit CF on segmental word-level pronunciation errors, the study included delayed posttests in addition to immediate posttests all of which included reading passages containing 40 problematic words. The collected data were analyzed by ANCOVA and the obtained findings revealed that both explicit and implicit corrective feedback are effective in reducing pronunciation errors showing significant differences between experimental and control groups. Additionally, the outcomes showed that immediate implicit and immediate explicit corrective feedback have similar effects on reduction of pronunciation errors. The same result comes up regarding the delayed effect of explicit feedback in comparison with delayed effect of implicit feedback. However, the delayed effect of explicit and implicit CF lowered comparing to their immediate effect due to time effect. Pedagogically, this study could enhance teachers’ effort, knowledge, and beliefs in teaching pronunciation and providing corrective feedback to pronunciation errors.   Keywords:corrective feedback; explicit CF; implicit CF; segmental word-level pronunciation errors   طی چند سال اخیر، در حوزه ی آموزش زبان انگلیسی شاهد تحقیقات کثیری در زمینه ی ﺗﺄثیر بازخورد اصلاحی بر یادگیری ساختار های دستور زبان انگلیسی بوده ایم.  با این وجود، در رابطه با ﺗﺄثیر آن در یادگیری تلفظ صحیح زبان انگلیسی تحقیقات بسیار اندکی انجام شده است. به منظور پر کردن این ﺧﻸ، مطالعه ی حاضر سعی داشته به بررسی و مقایسه ی ﺗﺄثیرات آنی و مدت دار بازخورد اصلاحی صریح و ضمنی در بهبود خطاهای تلفظی واحد های زنجیری در کلمات انگلیسی بپردازد.بدین منظور، طی یک تحقیق نیمه تجربی، شرکت کنندگان که از زبان آموزان انگلیسی به عنوان زبان خارجی انتخاب شده بودند به سه گروه صریح، ضمنی و کنترل تقسیم شدند. هر کدام از این گروه ها شامل 20 زبان آموز سطح پایین بوده که تواناییشان در تلفظ لغات مورد نظر از طریق پیش آزمون، پس آزمون فوری و پس آزمون تاخیری اندازه گیری شد.اطلاعات به دست آمده از طریق آزمون تحلیل کوواریانس ANCOVA تحلیل و بررسی شد. تفاوت معنادار بین گروههای آزمایشی و کنترل در یافته های به دست آمده نشان می دهد که هر دو بازخورد صریح و ضمنی تاثیر بسزایی در کاهش خطاهای تلفظی زبان آموزان در پس آزمون فوری داشته است. همچنین تاثیر مشابهی در پس آزمون تاخیری دو گروه صریح و ضمنی مشاهده شد. با این وجود، مقایسه ی بین پس آزمون های فوری و تاخیری نشان داد که تاثیر بازخورد در هر دو گروه آزمایشی با گذشت زمان کاهش یافته است. کلیدواژه ها: بازخورد اصلاحی، بازخورد اصلاحی صریح، بازخورد اصلاحی ضمنی، خطاهای تلفظ زنجیره ای

به طور کلی، ارزیابی برنامه ی درسی جهت کنترل کارکرد یک واحد درسی از اهمیت بسزایی برخوردار می باشد. بدینگونه که ما می توانیم مطمئن شویم که یک واحد درسی اهداف مورد نظر خود را برآورده می کند و در نتیجه خواسته ها و نیازهای یادگیرندگان را مد نظر قرار می دهد. در این راستا، عملکرد آموزشی واحد درسی «نثر ساده و متون مطبوعاتی» که برای دانشجویان دوره ی کارشناسی در دانشگاه تبریز ارائه می شود و توسط نویسنده ی این مقاله تدریس می شود مورد ارزیابی قرار گرفت. بدین منظور، روش ارزیابی درسی براون (1995)، طبق اهداف و نیازهای درس فوق، مورد بازبینی قرار گرفته و از پنج عنصر به هفت عنصر افزایش یافت: اهداف، دیدگاه ها، نیازسنجی، زمان، فعالیت های کلاسی، مطالب، و ارزشیابی. به منظور جمع آوری داده های کمی و کیفی روش ترکیبی مورد استفاده قرار گرفت. داده های کمی از طریق پرسشنامه جمع آوری شد که شامل 35 مورد بر پایه ی عناصر درسی بود، یعنی پنج مورد برای هر عنصر. همچنین، داده های کیفی از طریق مصاحبه ی نیمه ساختار یافته جمع آوری شد. تعداد 36 نفر دانشجوی دوره ی کارشناسی در این تحقیق شرکت داشتند: 12 نفر پسر و 24 نفر دختر. نتایج مطالعه نشان می دهد که این واحد درسی می تواند در گسترش دادن دانش زبانی، فرهنگی، و اجتماعی دانشجویان بسیار موثر باشد. با این وجود، بایستی تغییراتی در آن انجام شود تا بیشتر مفید واقع گردد. بدیهی است هفت عنصر برنامه درسی پیشنهادی توسط نویسنده ی این مقاله می تواند جهت بررسی هر واجد درسی مورد استفاده قرار گیرد.