بررسی مقایسه ای کارکردهای اشه و ماعت (مقاله علمی وزارت علوم)
درجه علمی: نشریه علمی (وزارت علوم)
آرشیو
چکیده
یکی از اشتراکات غالب تمدن های کهن، اعتقاد به وجود نوعی نظم مقدس کیهانی بوده است. این اعتقاد و باور، مردمان را ناگزیر و ملزم می ساخت تا حیات خویش را اعم از مادی و معنوی با اصول و قوانین ثابت ازلی و ابدی نظام مقدس کیهانی همسو سازند. طبیعتاً سرپیچی از این نظام مقدس نیز ناروا و غیرمجاز بود. نمونه هایی از واژگان ناظر به مفهوم نظم کیهانی عبارت اند از: در سنت هندی رِته (ṛta) که بعدها به دهرمه (dharma) تبدیل شد، در باورهای زرتشتی اَشه، در مصر باستان ماعت (Maʽat)، در آیین بودایی دهرمه، در مسیحیت لوگوس، در یونان باستان دایکو یا منوس، در خاور دور تائو یا دائو و در اسلام وحدت. این یکپارچگی و نظم، عالم تکوین و تشریع را در بر می گیرد و به حیات انسانی در ابعاد فردی و اجتماعی در تنظیم روابط با خود، با دیگر موجودات و با آفریدگار هویّتی اصیل و ماندگار می بخشد. در این سنت ها ضمن تأکید بر اهمیّت نظم و راستی و درستی در انتظام امور هستی و تعاملات بشری، بر رابطه تنگاتنگ نظم و راستی با سعادت و نجات تصریح شده است. همچنین، درک وجود نظم کیهانی و اخلاقی در فهم عمیق تر نسبت به حقایق هستی نقشی بی بدیل و ارزنده دارد. از ویژگی های مشترک اسطوره های ایران باستان و مصر باستان، مفهوم نظم کیهانی است که در تجلیات گوناگون شخصیت های آنها نمودار شده است. تجلی این مفهوم نه تنها در جلوه بصری، از نظر اعمال و جایگاه وجه نمادین آنها نیز تأمل پذیر است. هرچند به ظاهر اشخاص و اعمال اساطیری این دو تمدن کاملاً با یکدیگر منطبق نیستند، با دقت در بین ایزدان می توان میان ایزد اشه در ایران و ماعت در مصر، که هر دو به معانی «راستی، عدالت» و «نظم اخلاقی» اشاره دارند، وجه مشترکی یافت.A Comparative Study of the Functions of Asha and Ma'at
Extended Abstract Old civilizations are often characterized by the belief in some sacred cosmic order, which compelled people to adapt their material and spiritual lives to constant eternal principles and laws of a sacred cosmic order. By ‘cosmic order’ we mean an impersonal global order in virtue of which all affairs of the world are organized, including both moral and natural orders. The concern for coming to grip with this order, to understand its nature and its performance, is presented in terms of mythological, religious, and practical explanations. Holy scriptures have sought to respond to this human concern, including Avesta , the script of Zoroastrians, and a papyrus written in hieroglyph characters in Egypt. The doctrine of cosmic order has been a center of attention in ancient eastern cultures. In the Avestan language, such a cosmic order has been called Asha. In Hindu Vedas, the term appears as ṛta , and in ancient Persian epigraphy, it appears as ṛta in proper names (such as “Ṛtaxshaҫa” or Ardashir). In the present study, the significance of cosmic order or Asha comes from characteristics such as justice, moderation, fairness, honesty, and individual rights. It is originally an Ahuric eternal law, encompassing the entire cosmos and morality. Asha literally means “ideal truth” and is indeed the “law of Yazata”. Moreover, Asha has the obligation to manifest this law to maintain justice in the society. Originally, Asha is an eternal cosmic law, which encompasses both cosmos and the individual and social ethics of humans. The term Asha frequently appears both in Gathas and in later Avesta , which is indicative of the significance of this notion in Zoroastrian thoughts. It might be said that the Zoroastrian notion of Asha is not only the apparent order but also a realization of the eternal cosmic order, in light of which the creation has taken place. Asha might be seen as a manifestation of reason and an eternal project of Ahura Mazda for the creation of the world, in which the maintenance of the world is also made possible by Asha. Moreover, the survival of human beings and other entities in the world is also secured by Asha. The term Asha-vahishta (the best truth) also appears in Gathas . In Zoroastrianism, Asha-vahishta was believed to be the second Amesha Spenta after Vohu-manah. In Zoroaster’s psalms, it is explicitly said that Mazda was the Father, which suggests the existential nature of Asha. Since Ahura Mazda was the root or origin of the “truth” and identical with the “absolute truth”, Asha might also be construed as the “truth that appeared in the world”. In this respect, if Vohu-manah is seen as a manifestation of divine reason in the world of appearances and souls, Asha should count as a manifestation of divine order in the universe. In the ancient Egyptian culture, the order was very precious and sacred, such that all members of the society were responsible for the creation and maintenance of order, and order appeared in all subsidiary forms. In the ancient Egyptian civilization, this fundamental global and constant element was called Maʽat, which was of such a high ranking that it presented all physical and spiritual entities. Maʽat was first mentioned in stories of peasants since it enabled villagers to attain justice in their respective circumstances. In Egyptian beliefs, there was a close tie between cosmic events, which revealed the nature of divine life, and the notion of Maʽat. Indeed, the latter was a system that was created by the God of the Sun (Ra) as the creator of the world at the beginning of time and forever. Maʽat was expressive of the truth, honesty, and justice. It was portrayed as a lady whose head was covered by ostrich feathers. It was an inseparable part of Ra and Osiris. Maʽat was a goddess who secured Heaven for Egyptians. In ancient Egyptian mythology, Maʽat was believed to have two dimensions: terrestrial and divine. In the former, Maʽat was a symbol of the global and terrestrial norm- an equilibrium dominating the entire world, a justice that enables honesty, and an order that serves as a criterion for assessment of people’s deeds. In the latter, Maʽat is simultaneously the mother, the daughter, and the wife of Ra. Moreover, it is the spiritual sister of the Pharaoh. It is responsible for maintaining the balance in the cosmos, and it is by its virtue that the world is administered with harmony and coherence. According to ancient Egyptian beliefs, the souls of the dead were judged in a great hall belonging to Maʽat. In that hall, gods took out the dead’s heart and put it on a scale pan, behind which the Goddess Maʽat stood. On the other scale pan, there was a feather as a symbol of honesty and justice, that is, a symbol of Maʽat. If the dead’s heart was lighter than the feather, this meant that the dead person had done good deeds in his or her life, and thus, he or she deserved to go to Osiris, but if its heart was heavier than the feather, it meant that the dead person had committed indecent acts in the world of the living beings, and hence, he or she deserved to be punished and destroyed. By and large, the notions or functions of Asha and Maʽat might be said to share the following characteristics: (1) both meant cosmic order, truth, and justice, and were opposed to symbols of disorder, chaos, and falsehoods, (2) both were constant and stable forces in the world and had high rankings in the hierarchy of deities, (3) given the notion of law and order, they both had roles to play in ideal governments or monarchies, and (4) compliance with Asha and Maʽat could lead to salvation at the final judgment or the day of resurrection. Overall, one of the most fundamental shared notions between Mazdaean and ancient Egyptian beliefs was that of Asha and Maʽat. Their wide-ranging meanings notwithstanding, the two notions point to the existence of cosmic order in the whole being. Furthermore, the belief in Asha or Maʽat was first and foremost a belief in there being an eternal order in the being or cosmos, which serves as the exemplar of human life. Asha and Maʽat have pervasive individual and social dimensions, acting upon which seemingly counted as an essence of the entire cosmic order in both Zoroastrian and ancient Egyptian beliefs.
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