الهیات تطبیقی

The degree of social engagement within the early mystical tradition continues to be a subject of scholarly inquiry. A thorough understanding of their societal beliefs and perspectives is crucial for a nuanced and realistic interpretation of their teachings. Central to this understanding is the exploration of the concept of utopia. Utilizing an analytical approach, this research aims to define the ideal state according to Rumi’s Mathnawi and outline the path towards its realization. From Rumi’s perspective, an ideal state is characterized by peace, mercy, harmony, justice, and ultimately, equality. The construction of this utopian society relies on the interdependent roles of individuals, society, and the natural environment. To achieve such a state, Rumi posits a two-stage utopian model: first, the cultivation of ideal individuals, followed by the establishment of an ideal society. In the initial stage, individuals attain peace, mercy, and harmony through their connections with themselves, the Divine, and their familial communities, thus preparing them for the construction of an ideal society. This stage also involves learning through their relationship with nature that the essence of all is one, fostering a sense of unity. Humility, modesty, kindness, and honesty further facilitate dialogue, consultation, and support, laying the foundation for justice and equality. However, various obstacles complicate the journey through each stage, all characterized by a common element of deception. In traversing the second stage, political and economic governance assumes a pivotal role, potentially serving as a foundation for the realization of Rumi’s utopia. 

Knowledge, understanding, and attention to its levels, as well as recognition of the obstacles of each level are part of the fundamental principles in the mystical system presented in Mathnawi Manawi and the ancient Upanishads. The emphasis in these two mystical systems is prominent in achieving transcendental and intuitive knowledge in order to show more depth of truth to its followers. Therefore, the important question in these two mystical systems is the introduction and necessity of this intuitive knowledge and how to reach it. In this descriptive-analytical research, two important mystical texts, i.e. Mathnawi in ​​Iranian Islamic mysticism and ancient Upanishads in Indian mysticism, have been studied to answer the above questions. Mathnawi includes the levels of knowledge, from sensory knowledge to intellectual knowledge and finally to intuitive knowledge, which provides the basis for the discovery of the true self, and this intuitive knowledge is the transcendental consciousness. However, in the ancient Upanishads, which are the most important texts of Indian mysticism, these levels of knowledge and understanding are mentioned under the title of Pravidia and Apravidia, and the ultimate goal of this knowledge is to reach the same intuitive knowledge and discover the true Atman.

Despite the scientific and technological progress seen in the human world today, we are witnessing the disproportionate growth of violence in human society. It is, thus, necessary to talk about tolerance in such a time. The purpose of this study is to examine tolerance within the framework of Sadra's philosophy. The theoretical foundations of tolerance in Transcendent Theosophy will be explained in four categories: epistemology, methodology, ontology, and anthropology. Though Sadra has been influenced by Aristotelian virtue ethics, he takes a step forward and analyzes tolerance from an ontological point of view, understanding it not as a merely moral virtue but as an ontological-existential perfection towards Godlikeness "ὁμοίωσις θεῷ" [homoiōsis theō] which is the very essence of wisdom. Tolerance and violence in Sadra’s philosophy constitute two pyramid-like structures reciprocally. The pyramid of tolerance has reason and justice at its pinnacle while on the top of the pyramid of violence lie ignorance and injustice. Thus, pro-tolerance behavior is resulted from a rational mindset and pro-violence behavior has its origin in ignorance and idiocy. Outcomes of tolerance are the increase of wisdom, social dignity, and influence on people while stagnation, social humility, and isolation result from violence. It is needless to say neither tolerance is always applauded nor violence is always despised. This is why one can speak of the wrath of God and His saints in a meaningful way. Rather it is because of the conditions and their relation with reason and ignorance that we can reach a judgment in this regard. The study is concluded by a reality-based account of Sadra's treatment of his opponents which is followed by an elaboration of his tolerance-centered approach.

With a comparative textual approach, the present study tries to show how the previous termini technici and concepts have been redefined in Manichaeism, which was able to create celestial angels from certain earthly apostles, prophets, and sages, and why the function of any of the Manichaean figures is not equivalent to the function of their counterparts in other religions. After describing and determining the nature and function of the famous Semitic prophets Jacob and Seth, and the Buddhist sage Arahant, this study tries to find a satisfactory answer to why the Manichaeans considered these originally pre-Manichaean characters as angels. For the first time, the present survey paves the way for the hypothesis and logical speculation that syṭ ʻSeth the angelʼ is the angelic form of šytyl ʻSeth the prophet/ apostleʼ and ʾhryndws ʻArhant the angelʼ is the angelic form of (ʾ)rhnd/t ʻArhant the sageʼ and ultimately proves that the Manichaeans used each of these in two different contexts to refer to the two concepts ʻmessenger, prophet, sageʼ and ʻangelʼ simultaneously, which are two sides of the same coin.

In response to the question of why Prophet Abraham (PBUH) was appointed to the position of Imamate, various theories have been proposed in verse 2:124 of the Quran. Imam Musa Sadr, in his article "A Reflection on the Verse of the Imamate of Abraham (PBUH)”, critiques four theories: the same status of Prophethood, appointment to political-social leadership, Imamate at the rank of the Ulul Azm Prophets (PBUH), and inner guidance. He also presents a fifth theory titled "Pioneering in Action”. However, this theory has also failed to provide a suitable explanation for the Imamate of that Prophet (PBUH). In this article, using a descriptive-analytical method, we reject these five theories and propose a new theory titled "Prophet Abraham (PBUH), Imam of the Nations”. This theory, based on verses, narrations, and historical evidence, distinguishes the Sharia of Prophet Abraham (PBUH) in its universality from the Sharia of the other three Ulul Azm Prophets (PBUH) and considers it in harmony and unity with Islamic Sharia. The Sharia of that Prophet has always been present in the world after him and has been connected to Islamic Sharia. Prophet Abraham (PBUH) has been a role model for all people of the world and a standard for monotheism and religiosity. For this reason, he has been the Imam of the nations, and his appointment to the position of Imamate is a specific appointment that even differs from his Imamate in terms of being one of the Ulul Azm.

From a philosophical standpoint, the fourth Islamic century (tenth-eleventh Christian centuries) stands out as the most remarkable and brilliant period among the centuries of the Islamic calendar. It exemplifies the essence of Islamic civilization, characterized by freedom, tolerance, morality, humanism, and rationality. During this period, Iran and Iraq were governed by the Sunni Abbasid Caliphate and Shiite Persian Buyid Emirate. One characteristic of this significant period, reminiscent of the Renaissance (centuries before the European Renaissance), is its cultural pluralism and religious tolerance. A notable example that epitomizes this remarkable tolerance can be found in the philosophical circles of Iran and Iraq during the tenth century. These circles brought together thinkers from diverse nations and religions. At times, the role of the master and moderator was assumed by Muslim figures like al-Sijistani (d. 1001 AD), while in other instances, Christian philosophers such as Yahya (Yuhanna/John) ibn ʿAdi (893-974 AD) took on the responsibility of moderating these intellectual gatherings. Yahya ibn ʿAdi had two groups of disciples: one comprised of Muslims, including al-Sijistani and Ibn Miskawayh, and the other consisting of Christians such as Ibn Samh, Nazif al-Rumi, and ʿIsa ibn Zurʿa. This study employs the method of intellectual historiography as applied to that age, specifically al-Tawhidi to explore the characteristics of intellectual exchange and the relationship between Muslim and Christian scholars.

The purpose of this study is to implement a comparative approach to investigate the interplay between religion and the rise of capitalism through the perspectives of Max Weber and Werner Sombart. By contextualizing their positions within the intellectual debates of their time, this study highlights their respective inclinations towards the Austrian School and the German Historical School. Weber's Neo-Kantian influences and Sombart's Hegelian roots further deepen the philosophical and epistemological divide between them. In the next step, the methodology and theories regarding the spirit of modern capitalism, religious motivation, and the future of capitalism are reflected. Weber's work, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, posits that Protestant ethics played a crucial role in the development of modern capitalism, emphasizing rationalization and ethical discipline. In contrast, Sombart's works, including Der Moderne Kapitalismus and Jews and Modern Economic Life, argue for a broader array of influences, integrating psychological, social, and cultural factors in shaping capitalist behavior and especially emphasizing the role of Judaism. The research underscores their contrasting views: Weber sees capitalism and Protestant ethics as singular phenomena with an elective affinity, while Sombart views capitalism as the manifestation of a modern capitalist spirit (Geist) influencing psychological incentives and broader social needs.

Seyyed Mohammad Hossein Ṭabaṭabaʾi (1281-1360 A.H./ 1904-1981 A.D.) is a contemporary Shiite commentator and mystic whose mystical approach could be clearly seen in his inclusive interpretation of the plurality of religions. Ṭabaṭabaʾi believes that the Qur'an seeks to unify religions and defines common criteria such as faith in God and righteous deeds for salvation. Ṭabaṭabaʾi's interpretation of the plurality of religions, based on the Qur'an and mysticism, is that religions have a single essence that exists in all of them in different degrees. This single essence consists of believing in the truth, surrendering to the truth, and acting upon the truth, which will lead to salvation in the hereafter. One of the most important principles of dialogue is recognizing the “other”, respecting them, and acknowledging their benefit from the truth. Ṭabaṭabaʾi's interpretation of the unity of religions can provide these foundations and, based on them, help the followers of religions sit at the table and provide a suitable platform for interacting with one another, understanding each other and their coexistence.