۱.
Background and Theoretical Foundations: Marine oil pollution represents one of the most severe threats to the marine environment, with long-lasting ecological, economic, and social consequences. While civil liability regimes have been extensively developed under international conventions, the realm of criminal liability—especially for both natural and legal persons—remains fragmented and inconsistently applied across jurisdictions. Theoretical underpinnings of criminal liability are rooted in the principles of international environmental law, state sovereignty, and the evolving recognition of corporate culpability under international legal frameworks. Key conventions such as the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), the MARPOL 73/78 Convention, and the International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co-operation (OPRC) set the stage for state responsibilities and potential penal responses to pollution incidents, yet do not explicitly create unified standards of criminal prosecution for polluters. Methodology: This article applies a comparative and analytical legal methodology grounded in the study of international treaties, customary international law, case law, and state practice. It examines both soft law instruments and binding conventions, alongside selected national laws and prosecutions. Findings: The research reveals significant gaps in the international legal system’s approach to criminal liability for marine oil pollution. While several instruments impose obligations on states to adopt penal measures, enforcement varies widely, and the actual prosecution of corporate actors is rare. States often rely on civil penalties or administrative sanctions. However, where domestic laws are aligned with international obligations—such as in the U.S. or the EU—criminal prosecutions have led to substantial deterrent outcomes. Furthermore, corporate criminal liability, although increasingly recognized, remains legally ambiguous in many jurisdictions, and international law does not yet fully incorporate binding norms in this regard. Conclusion: International law recognizes the seriousness of marine oil pollution but lacks a harmonized and enforceable framework for holding individuals and corporations criminally liable. To bridge this gap, a more robust international regime is needed—one that explicitly defines environmental crimes at sea, standardizes evidentiary thresholds, and fosters cooperative enforcement among flag, coastal, and port states. Enhancing international cooperation, supporting capacity building in developing states, and codifying corporate environmental responsibility are essential steps toward achieving greater accountability and marine environmental protection on a global scale. Keywords: Marine Oil Pollution, Individual Criminal Liability, Corporate Criminal Liability, International Environmental Law, MARPOL Convention,
۲.
Background and Theoretical Foundations: By the end of the 20th century, the international community had managed to develop a relatively cohesive legal system for fighting against piracy and had taken commendable actions against pirates. Recent cases have been greatly efficient in inhibiting the activities of pirates. However, the situation has changed since the beginning of the 21st century, in which there has been an extremely rising trend in statistics for the theft of merchant ships. In other words, the activities of pirates have now become the most important challenge to the security of international trade and merchant ships at sea worldwide. Methodology: This research employs a descriptive-analytical method, in some cases, combined with a prescriptive-mandatory approach, to examine the international legal framework for combating piracy through the use of force, with an emphasis on the role of private military security companies. Findings: It is necessary to comply with the principles of necessity and proportionality, as well as all provisions of international humanitarian law, when fighting against pirates. However, it is preferable to resort to force against pirates to resolve the piracy problem. Although we believe that eradicating the challenge of piracy seems to be an Idealistic and utopian idea, we are sure that by adopting a coherent plan, this major international challenge can be curbed. Even without weapons, merchantmen can defend themselves well, and reducing the motivation of pirates will definitely have an effect on reducing piracy. Conclusion: According to the research results, states are obliged to comply with all principles and regulations of international humanitarian law for the use of force against pirates. The results also identified two challenges to the roles of private military security companies in this regard. Finally, five solutions such as holding scientific workshops and providing theoretical and practical training to sailors, reviewing recorded videos of pirates' actions, using the experiences of ship Capitan who have been able to neutralize pirates' operations, preparing suitable scenarios for how to manage the crisis, and ultimately the possibility the use of simulated workshops and placing the vessel in a position that is going to be attacked by pirates can improve the readiness of sailors and ship captains to deal with piracy to enhance the security of merchant ships against piracy operations.
۳.
Background and Theoretical Foundations: Water is a fundamental necessity for life, underpinning public health, social well-being, and sustainable development. Over the last decades, the international community has progressively recognized access to safe and sufficient water as a human right, formally acknowledged by the United Nations General Assembly in Resolution 64/292 (2010) and further elaborated in General Comment No. 15 of the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. This right encompasses not only physical access to adequate water for personal and domestic uses but also its quality, affordability, and non-discrimination in distribution. The theoretical framework for understanding the right to water draws upon human rights law, environmental law, and principles of sustainable resource management. It also requires balancing individual rights with collective stewardship of a finite resource in the face of population growth, climate change, and competing sectoral demands. Methodology: This study adopts a qualitative, comparative, and normative approach. Primary legal instruments, including international treaties, soft law instruments, and national constitutions, were analyzed alongside secondary literature on water governance and human rights. A doctrinal legal analysis was employed to interpret the scope and content of the water right. At the same time, a comparative policy review examined regulatory models from selected jurisdictions representing different water management traditions. Case studies from South Africa, Brazil, and Spain were used to illustrate diverse legal and institutional mechanisms. The research also integrates perspectives from development studies, public policy, and environmental economics to assess regulatory effectiveness. Finding: The analysis reveals that, although the water right has been normatively affirmed, its implementation varies significantly across different legal systems. Effective realization depends on three interrelated factors: (1) constitutional or statutory entrenchment of the right, (2) robust regulatory institutions with clear mandates, and (3) adequate financial and technical capacity to manage supply and quality. Countries that embed the right to water within broader water resource management strategies tend to achieve more equitable and sustainable outcomes. Conversely, where water governance is fragmented or overly market-driven, disparities in access persist, especially for marginalized populations. Policy coherence, participatory decision-making, and transparent monitoring mechanisms emerge as critical drivers of success. Conclusion Recognizing the right to water as a human right is a necessary but insufficient step; its realization demands an integrated regulatory framework grounded in equity, sustainability, and accountability. States must align water policies with human rights obligations, invest in infrastructure, and ensure inclusive governance processes. As climate variability intensifies and water stress increases, the legal and policy architecture protecting water rights will be central to safeguarding health, livelihoods, and environmental integrity. International cooperation, knowledge-sharing, and innovative financing will be essential in bridging the gap between normative commitments and practical outcomes.
۴.
Background and Theoretical Foundations : The phenomenon of maritime piracy and maritime terrorism has long posed a persistent threat to international maritime security and the global economy. In recent decades, especially in the Gulf of Aden, Bab el-Mandeb, and northern Indian Ocean, piracy has evolved into a transnational organized crime with political, military, and economic implications. The Islamic Republic of Iran, relying on its strategic naval doctrine and regional maritime presence, has taken an active role in combating piracy, particularly through the operations of the Islamic Republic of Iran Navy (NEDAJA). This study draws upon international criminal law, international public law, customary law, and Iranian domestic legal frameworks to assess the legal, operational, and normative roles of Iran’s strategic navy in response to piracy and maritime terrorism . Methodology : The study employs a qualitative and comparative legal-analytical approach. It draws from a wide range of primary and secondary sources, including conventions such as the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), the SUA Convention (1988), resolutions of the United Nations Security Council, Iranian national legislation, military doctrinal documents, and recent judicial reports. Additionally, scholarly literature and Persian-language defense and legal analyses were translated into English and used to frame the domestic response within broader international criminal accountability mechanisms. Case studies of Iranian naval interventions in piracy incidents over the last decade—especially the rescue of foreign vessels—are critically examined. Findings : Iran’s navy has played a pivotal role in securing major sea lanes and protecting Iranian and foreign commercial vessels. Despite Iran’s non-ratification of UNCLOS, its practical compliance with international norms—including principles of universal jurisdiction and hot pursuit—demonstrates its functional alignment with international obligations. However, challenges remain in domestic law, including the absence of specialized maritime criminal courts, limited procedural clarity regarding extradition and prosecution of foreign pirates, and insufficient institutional transparency. Nonetheless, the Iranian legal system provides certain unique tools, such as military judicial authority over transnational maritime offenses, which enhance responsiveness . Conclusion : Iran’s strategic naval actions contribute significantly to regional anti-piracy operations, reinforcing its soft power and legitimacy in maritime governance. From the standpoint of international criminal law, these actions, when paired with reforms in legal codification and international cooperation, can enhance Iran’s role as a responsible maritime actor. The study recommends updating domestic criminal codes to explicitly criminalize piracy in accordance with international law, establishing maritime judicial training, and expanding bilateral treaties to facilitate extradition and mutual legal assistance .
۵.
Background and Theoretical Foundations : The Caspian Sea region underwent a fundamental geopolitical transformation following the collapse of the Soviet Union, leading to the emergence of new littoral states: Russia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, and Turkmenistan. This shift reconfigured the regional strategic landscape, presenting Iran with a complex mix of new opportunities and security challenges. The increased presence and competition of regional and extra-regional powers further underscored the necessity for Iran to consolidate and enhance its national power in this vital area. This research is grounded in the theoretical understanding that national power is a multifaceted construct, and its sustainable enhancement in a strategic region like the Caspian is essential for safeguarding national security interests.
Methodology : This study employed a descriptive-analytical approach. The research process began with an extensive review of theoretical literature and an environmental assessment of the Caspian Sea littoral states to identify relevant geopolitical factors. Subsequently, an analytical model was developed to frame the investigation. Data collection was conducted through a researcher-designed questionnaire, distributed comprehensively to a statistical population of 80 experts and specialists in fields related to geopolitics, security, and Caspian Sea studies. The gathered data were then analyzed using appropriate statistical techniques and methods to process the expert opinions and evaluate the research questions systematically.
Findings : The analysis of the data revealed that the factors influencing the continuous enhancement of Iran's national power in the Caspian Sea, with a focus on national security, are comprehensive and span five key domains: Human, Military, Economic, Political, and Natural. From these broad domains, a total of 27 specific and impactful geopolitical indicators were identified and extracted. These indicators provide a detailed map of the critical elements, from human capital and military preparedness to economic integration, diplomatic leverage, and the utilization of natural resources, that collectively determine Iran's strategic position and security posture in the Caspian region.
Conclusion : In conclusion, the sustainable strengthening of Iran's national power in the Caspian Sea is not contingent upon a single factor but requires an integrated and balanced strategy across all five identified domains. The 27 geopolitical indicators serve as a crucial framework for policymakers. Addressing these indicators in a coherent manner is essential for formulating effective policies and strategies. Ultimately, a continuous and multidimensional enhancement of national power based on this framework is fundamental to promoting and ensuring the national security of the Islamic Republic of Iran in the strategically vital Caspian Sea region.
۶.
Population has a direct relationship with security, especially national security. Therefore, the quality of the population and particularly its structure, including gender, age, literacy, and community structure, can significantly impact security as well as development at various geographical scales. In this regard, the present study, with a descriptive-analytical approach and relying on library and statistical sources as well as using trend analysis methods, intends to examine the population structure in the coastal regions of the Persian Gulf from the perspective of national security of the Islamic Republic of Iran. It seeks to answer the question: How can the population structure of the coastal regions of the Persian Gulf affect the national security of the Islamic Republic of Iran? The results obtained from this study indicate that the demographic structure can significantly impact national security. Thus, the gender composition of the population directly impacts the forces that maintain security. Moreover, the age factor and the age pyramid of the residents determine the types of activities and the balance of the population. Additionally, the literacy component and skilled human groups affect the region's geo-economic conditions and the extent to which development is achieved. The social structure has a direct relationship with population coverage and the elimination of security gaps in the coastal areas of the Persian Gulf. According to the findings of the research, more than fifty percent of the population of the three coastal provinces of the Persian Gulf were in the age group of 20-65 years old, which shows that the resident population in these areas is made up of young people, especially people of working age and this is a good sign for establishing security and comprehensive development of these areas.
