محمد احمدی صفا

The identification of the cognitive, affective, social and even physiological factors affecting second or foreign language learning routes and rate has for long been a challenging aspiration for second language researchers. However, a recent preoccupation of the researchers in this area has been the study of the combinatorial impacts of such factors on second or foreign language learning processes and products. As a partial undertaking in this regard, this study investigated the relations pattern among some psychological and cognitive variables and foreign language learning achievement rate. The studied factors were self-regulation, goal-orientation, tolerance of ambiguity, and autonomy on the one hand and English as Foreign Language (EFL) learners’ ultimate achievement on the other hand. To this end, 250 Iranian BA level EFL students majoring English literature or English translation were selected based on convenience sampling procedure. Next, having obtained the participants' informed consent to participate in the study, the researchers administered Trait Self-Regulation Questionnaire (TSRQ), Goal Orientation, Tolerance of Ambiguity, and Learner Autonomy scales to them. In addition, concerning their L2 achievement rate measure, their BA level general English courses' GPA was obtained from the education office of the related universities. The data were statistically analyzed and the hypothetical model of interrelations among the given variables was tested using Structural Equation Modeling procedures. The results indicated that goal orientation and self-regulation significantly predicted L2 achievement; however, tolerance of ambiguity and learner autonomy were not found as strong predictors of L2 achievement. On the other hand, while self-regulation strongly predicted goal orientation, it was not verified to be a strong predictor of tolerance of ambiguity. The results also showed that goal orientation could strongly predict learner autonomy. A ready-made implication of the findings might be that the combinatorial effects of the psychological variables on cognitive processes like second language learning is quite complicated and different from the effects of each individual variable.      

A major concern of language testing researchers has for long been the identification of construct-irrelevant influential cognitive and psychological bias factors in test takers’ language test performance and recently the identification of the tentative models of interactions among such factors. With the same purpose in mind, the present study investigated the direct and indirect interrelationships among EFL learners’ test anxiety, test-wiseness, reading metacognitive awareness, and reading comprehension test performance through a path analytic research design. To this end and on the basis of the related literature and the previous research findings, first a hypothesized model of the interrelationship among the variables was assumed. Next, 317 undergraduate and graduate students took the related questionnaires and tests. Finally, the obtained data were analyzed through AMOS statistical package and the hypothesized model of the interrelationship among variables was tested. According to the final verified model, test-wiseness directly predicted reading comprehension test performance, while test anxiety did not. Moreover, while reading strategies metacognitive awareness did not directly predict reading comprehension test performance, it was indirectly associated with reading comprehension test performance through the mediation of test-wiseness. In addition, both correlational and path analyses confirmed a strong negative relationship between reading strategies metacognitive awareness, and test anxiety. The findings highlight the importance of the language test takers' less test anxiety and enhanced metacognitive awareness of reading strategies and test-wiseness for their more reliable test-taking performances.

This study examined the effect of rater training on promoting inter-rater reliability in oral language assessment. It also investigated whether rater training and the consideration of the examinees’ expectations by the examiners have any effect on test-takers’ perceptions of being fairly evaluated. To this end, four raters scored 31 Iranian intermediate EFL learners’ oral performance on the speaking module of the IELTS in two stages (i.e. pre- and post-training stage). Furthermore, following Kunnan’s (2004) Test Fairness Framework, a questionnaire on fairness in oral language assessment was developed, and after pilot testing and validating, it was administered to the examinees at both stages. The examinees’ expectations were taken into account in the second round of the speaking test. The results indicated that rater training is likely to promote inter-rater reliability and, in turn, enhances the fairness of the decisions made based on the test scores. It was also concluded that considering students’ expectations of a fair test would improve their overall perceptions of being fairly evaluated. The results of this study sought to provide second language teachers, oral test developers, and oral examiners and raters with useful insights into addressing fairness-related issues in oral assessment.

What we know about the vision of an ideal Young Learners of English (YLE) classroom environment is only limited to a number of small-scale qualitative studies that have explored the development of teachers’ vision throughout their careers. This gap prompted the researchers of this study to pursue the development of a psychometrically valid measure of the factors involved in teachers’ vision of an ideal YLE classroom environment. To this end, an item pool was developed based on an extensive literature review, expert opinion, and interviews with 60 YLE teachers. Next, the first version of the questionnaire was administered to 366 YLE teachers from different cities of Iran. Confirmatory factor analyses through structural equation modeling procedures were applied to the data obtained to test the validity of the hypothetical model. Rounds of statistical analyses and the follow-up remodeling led to a final measurement model of a questionnaire with 23 items tapping into five factors of learner characteristics, attitudes toward the course, teacher characteristics, classroom environment, and organizational impact. The results of this study empirically support the multidimensionality of YLE teachers’ vision of an ideal classroom environment and yield a relatively concrete measure of the construct.

The present study aims at the description and analysis of the phonological and lexical development of a child who is acquiring Farsi as his first language. The child's language production at the holophrastic stage of language development, mainly single words, is observed and recorded longitudinally for nearly seven months since he was 16 months old until he turned 23 months. An attempt is made to see if the phonological and lexical findings of the same period found in other languages are confirmed in the case of Farsi (an Indo-European language). Issues like noun dominance in the early words, vocabulary spurt of the toddlers, and the dominant CVCV, CVC, CV syllabic structures are the focal points in this study. The significance of the study lies in the fact that the number of the studies done on the language development of monolingual Farsi speaking children is very few.

The obligatory prevalence of online education during the COVID-19 pandemic has drawn researchers’ attention to the challenges involved in foreign language pedagogy in such virtual educational contexts. Against this backdrop, this study investigated the impact of online self-regulated learning, use of communication strategies, and test anxiety on Iranian English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners’ online speaking test performance. For this purpose, 132 EFL learners were given the e-Oxford Quick Placement Test and the speaking part of a sample A2 Key and B1 Preliminary test. Next, translated versions of the given measures were administered to the pre- and intermediate EFL learners and the obtained data were subjected to Structural Equation Modeling analyses that verified strong links between online self-regulated learning and the use of communication strategies, test anxiety and online self-regulated learning, and test anxiety and EFL learners’ use of communication strategies. Furthermore, the direct impacts of online self-regulated learning and use of communication strategies on learners’ online speaking test performance were verified; however, test anxiety was found to indirectly impact the learners’ online speaking test performance through its negative effect on EFL learners’ online self-regulated learning and use of communication strategies. In addition, online self-regulated learning turned out to be the strongest predictor of the learners’ online speaking test performance. As for the implications of the findings, it appeared that the attested model lends support to Bachman and Palmer’s (1996) language use framework illustrating test performance as a vulnerable construct affected by test takers' attributes and features of the test tasks and the impact of construct-irrelevant factors like test takers’ personal characteristics on their test performance.

Drawing on investigations conducted on the relative adequacy of the various types of scaffolding strategies in SL/FL learning, this study investigated the relative efficacy of “formal practice” as a cognitive scaffolding strategy, “reflection and monitoring” as metacognitive scaffolding strategies, and “note-taking” as a cognitive non-scaffolding strategy for the EFL learners’ listening comprehension development. To this aim, a total of 90 EFL students from two different language institutes in Dorood (Lorestan province, central Iran) were chosen using convenience sampling procedure. The sample was conveniently assigned into three groups of 30 EFL learners and the relevant treatments were given to the groups for 15 sessions. The statistical analyses indicated that reflection and monitoring metacognitive scaffolding strategies significantly enhanced the listening comprehension development of EFL learners. As for the qualitative phase, the most frequent types of cognitive and metacognitive scaffolding strategies applied by the peers and teachers were explored through a semi-structured interview. The content analysis of the interview data indicated that the learners and teachers found reflection and monitoring scaffolding strategies as the most frequently used and effective procedures. An implication of the findings might be that in comparison to cognitive scaffolding and non-scaffolding strategies, metacognitive scaffolding strategies are empirically verified and attitudinally confirmed to be quite efficacious for the development of listening comprehension among EFL learners in an emotionally positive and constructive atmosphere.

The widespread integration of technology into education has led to significant reliance on online assessment. Despite its prevalence, concerns about the fairness of online assessment persist. While this issue has attracted considerable attention, empirical investigations, particularly those exploring teachers' perceptions of fairness in online assessment, remain scarce. Additionally, existing frameworks for assessing fairness in an online context seem inadequate. To address these concerns, the current study investigated Iranian English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers' perceptions of fairness in online assessment. Moreover, the study aimed to develop a valid scale to measure the fairness of assessment practices in the online context. Employing a mixed-methods approach, the study conducted a structured interview with 20 EFL teachers, and the resulting data were transcribed and analyzed qualitatively. Ten major codes or themes derived from the data were access, knowledge, personal factors, clear criteria, item quality, safety, policies, teaching quality, assessment type, and administration. The codes were subsequently classified into three overarching categories: student level, teacher level, and organizational level. Then, based on the interview findings and the existing literature, an online assessment fairness questionnaire was developed and administered to a sample of 100 EFL teachers, whose results verified five core factors of online assessment fairness. The study's findings offer a novel understanding of teachers' perspectives on the fairness of online assessment and the factors that contribute to its fairness or unfairness.