نظریه ها و شواهد تخلیه انگیزشی در مشارکت امر خیر: به سوی یک نظریه اسلامی
آرشیو
چکیده
انسان ها نه صرفاً براساس منفعت طلبی صرف، بیشتر تحت تأثیر انگیزه های درونی، مانند نوع دوستی، در امر خیر مشارکت می کنند. این انگیزه ها می تواند با هم در تعارض (همراهی) قرار بگیرند و موجب تخلیه (تراکم) انگیزشی شوند. در این مقاله با استفاده از روش مطالعات تطبیقی و چندرشته ای، ابتدا انسان شناسی اقدام به امر خیر، ارائه و سپس با استفاده از تحلیل عقلی نتایج آن استخراج می شوند. بر این اساس، به کمک نظریه حرکت جوهری اشتدادی نفس ملاصدرا و نظریه فطرت شهید مطهری و نیم نگاهی به روایات و یافته های اقتصاد رفتاری، پنج مرتبه از دانی به عالی شامل غرائز نباتی، حیوانی و انسانی و فطرت انسانی و الهی در انسان پیشنهاد می شود. سعادت مراتب غریزی توسط لذت و سعادت مراتب فطری به وسیله عقل تشخیص داده می شود. طبق نظریه ملاصدرا با استکمال نفس و رسیدن به مراتب بالاتر، دادن حظ هر مرتبه درنهایت، موجب بهره بردن مراتب پایین تر و در عین حال، عدم استکمال مراتب بالاتر می شود. پدیده تخلیه انگیزشی زمانی رخ می دهد که مرتبه ای از نفس فرد تحریک شود که پایین تر از مرتبه به فعلیت رسیده وی است.Theories and Evidence of Extrinsic Motivational Crowding out in Charitable Giving: Towards an Islamic Theory
Introduction According to the standard economic theory, participation of individuals in charitable activities is low, because this participation is usually used to compensate for market failure, which is precisely due to the self-interest of the economic man. However, field and experimental evidence show a high level of participation of individuals in the third economic sector. The conflict between the traditional economic theory and observations has led to the modification of the self-interest assumption in behavioral economics and the recognition of intrinsic motivations in humans, such as fairness, reciprocity, and altruism, which are opposed to the traditional economic motivations, namely material rewards and punishments, known as extrinsic motivations. In some situations, both intrinsic and extrinsic motivations coexist, and increasing material rewards can have a reverse effect and cause crowding out of intrinsic motivation (Frey, 1997). Many experiments have been conducted in various disciplines such as economics and psychology and various theories have been proposed to explain intrinsic and extrinsic motivations. These theories aim to understand the nature of the interaction of these two motivations on each other to make correct policies and reduce the financial burden of the government. The phenomenon of motivational crowding out is also addressed in Islamic teachings, especially ethical issues without naming it, because in Islamic teachings there are multiple motivations in at least two general categories: divine and non-divine, and crowding out occurs when a good-looking activity is done with a non-divine motive (Riya). What highlight the importance of developing an Islamic theory, in addition to the importance of motivation in Islam itself, are (1) the difference between the definition of human in Islamic teachings and social sciences, and (2) the difference in the goal of attracting charitable contributions, because in Islam the main purpose of the donation is firstly to purify the donor (Surah Al-Tawbah /103) and then to help the needy. Any proposed theory on motivational crowding out in charitable giving should take place in two related steps: first identifying and classifying different types of motivations for participating in charity and then determining their types of interactions, i.e. crowding in or crowding out. Accordingly, this paper aims to fill part of this important research gap with the help of transcendental theosophy to identify the motivations of charitable giving and provide a model for their effect on each other. Research Methodology Using comparative and multidisciplinary studies (including behavioral economics, related Hadiths, anthropological findings, Aristotelian philosophy, and transcendental theosophy), the anthropology of charitable giving is presented and then its results are extracted using rational analysis. Based on this, this article with the help of Mulla Sadra’s theory of substantial motion of the soul and the theory of nature of martyr Motahari and a glance at related Hadiths and findings of behavioral economics, proposes five levels of the soul from low to high including vegetable, animal and human instincts and angelic and divine nature in human. Research Findings Types of motivations in charitable giving in Islamic thoughts are (1) Life instinct (the lowest level): the tendency to preserve life such as reproduction, growth, and nutrition. (2) Animal instincts: The most important manifestation of this instinct in economics is self-interest, according to which the individual helps others if he or she gets more help. This is the character of the neoclassical economic man. (3) Human Instincts: Motivations such as fairness, reciprocity, and altruism. (4) Angelic Nature: Motivations of achieving future rewards and pleasures or avoiding future punishments (related to the world of the hereafter) come into play. (5) Divine Nature: All actions are done with the intention of being close to God Almighty. The motivation of the instinctive action is first to achieve pleasure (which is understood by the instinct itself) and then the achievement of perfection occurs, but the motivation of the natural action is first to achieve perfection (which is understood by the intellect) and then to obtain pleasure. Based on this, in the Islamic governance of charitable contributions, where the main goal is to bring more people to higher perfections, i.e. eudemonia, two types of motivational crowding out can occur. The first type is when a higher order has completely reached its actuality and perfection, and therefore doing a good deed will cause pleasure. In this case, the stimulation of the lower-order motivation can lead to the motivational crowding out and withdrawal of the person from doing the good deed, the mechanism of which is similar to the expulsion of intrinsic motivations by extrinsic motivations in traditional literature. The second type occurs when the higher order has not yet reached its worthy perfection and therefore the person does not enjoy doing good deeds and even suffers. In this case, the stimulation of the lower-order motivation causes more pleasure for the individual and if consciousness does not play a role, for example by nudging the individual, the motivation of the individual is weakened, and doing a good deed not only does not create perfection for the individual but also causes the degradation of his order (Misbah Yazdi, 2012: 162). Therefore, improper management of motivations can cause a person to be placed in the lower orders of perfection and even backward. For example, for a person who is at the beginning of the stage of faith, and has not yet settled in it, the stimulation of purely human motives without involving faith, has the power to weaken his faith. Although this may increase donations. Discussion and Conclusion According to the verses of the Holy Qur'an, in the management of motives for good work in Islamic governments such as the era of the Messenger of God, peace and blessings be upon him, people should be given attention to the exalted status of their existence and asked to give charity continuously and solely with the motive of gaining divine approval. In this case, people who obey this order can quickly follow the path of growth and perfection (like the story of Ahl al-Bayt's charitable giving in Surah Al-Insan), and people who do not have the desire to do this, will follow the path of degeneration and their actions will be destroyed and they enter the valley of disbelief (Surah Al-Baqarah/264). But non-Islamic governments usually pay attention to maximizing charitable contributions rather than paying attention to the perfection of human beings. In this case, they choose a combination of intrinsic and extrinsic motivations so that they can witness the most participation in charitable giving with the least cost (reward). In addition, out of the four motivations of the proposed model, they only deal with the second and third orders. Islamic countries have not yet extracted the authentic Islamic model and applied it, and usually give the most importance to the amount of donations. While in the government of the Prophet, a group of people were forced to participate in charity affairs due to social pressures or to gain the opinion of the Prophet and the people, and considered it a loss for themselves. God does not give any rewards for such donations. In this case, it can be said that in Islamic countries, similar to many other social interactions, we are witnessing the secularization of charity and its departure from the path that God has set for it. While this model is suitable for secular countries.
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