institution

Test washback is held to be complicated and multifaceted in that a host of cultural, social, individual, test, and institutional factors are involved in shaping it. Thus far, the majority of washback studies have had as their focus the role of teachers in test washback or washback to teachers. How educational environments or institutions might function in isolation or in interaction with other factors in shaping washback to the learners and test takers has not received adequate research attention. The current study examined the mediatory role of academic institutions in washback to learners' perceptions of test content and test preparation. To this aim, 86 senior English students from two universities, one a top tier and the other a low tier one, completed two questionnaires: one on test takers' preparation practices including test analysis, test taking skills, drilling target skills, and socio-affective strategies; and the other on test takers' construal of test demands and uses as well as their expectation of success on the test.  The data analyzed through partial least squares structural equation modeling revealed that a washback model based on expectancy-value theory explains a moderate amount of variance in test preparation. Further, for test takers from the low tier university, favorable perceptions of test content were associated with more value placed on test taking. However, Multi-group analysis pointed to group-invariance of the model across the two institutions, indicating a lack of strong evidence for the mediatory role of educational environments in washback to test takers’ perceptions and preparation.

Most of the researchers in American politics and public policy focus on the Presidency, Congress, and Judiciary as the main institutions in the U.S. and consider the relations and interactions among them. However, the relationship between these main institutions affected by interest groups which can be seen in the process of decision making and their contribution to the public sphere. In an attempt to consider the role of interest groups, this paper’s main concern is to study the influence of interest groups on the public sphere in general, and particularly, the role of religious interest groups in the process of decision making for Muslim communities. The paper’s assumption is that the mosque and other religious institutions in the U.S. have multifaceted roles to mobilize Muslims and push them for sociopolitical participation and on the other hand; they can affect legislative and executive branches in their process of decision making. I will review the literature of interest groups, religious organizations, and policy-making models to explain the process of decision making and the factors that affect these procedures. Then I consider the effect of these Muslim institutions on the process of decision making in the U.S. and explain the relationship between these interest groups and policymakers in the U.S.