tradition and modernity

Literature, in addition to its aesthetic and artistic aspects, has always been a reflection of social and cultural realities and characteristics of its respective era and society. Sociological criticism is a relatively modern method in literary criticism. The method studies the structure and content of literary works and their relation to the structures and evolutions of the societies where they have been created. Baha Tāher is a distinguished Egyptian author who has written outstanding stories in the field of critical and social realism to the extent that the Egyptian society, with all its ups and downs, is inherent in his books. The most significant themes in his stories reflect opposing authoritarianism, imperialism, and feudalism. A distinguished novel of his, East of the Palms , includes subjects such as the conflict between tradition and modernity, the youth’s and the intellectuals’ problems, anti-imperialist movements, social repression, student protests during the Egyptian revolution of July 1958, and the issue of Palestine. In the present study, the authors have conducted a sociological critique of this novel based on György Lukács and Lucien Goldmann’s sociological theories. Analyzing the two elements of character and theme, the article seeks to find out whether Tāher has been successful in making a connection between the novel’s artistic world and the respective social structures. The analysis method of the study is descriptive-analytical. It is concluded that the writer has been successful in reflecting the realities of the Egyptian society and relating the artistic world and social structures.

The political and social system involved in the limbo between tradition and modernity of the Qajar Era caused widespread and quick developments in Iranian culture, art, and architecture as well as a challenge between tradition and modernity. Relatively numerous palaces built in this era were signs of greatness and distinction-seeking of the Qajar kings and aristocrats, who embraced all transformations of architecture in their era and played a significant role in changing Iranian architectural values. Therefore the purpose of the present study is to investigate developments in architecture of the Qajar Era and their effects on the evolution of palaces in this era. Using case studies methodology and referring to historical sources, contemporary studies on Qajar architecture and field studies conducted on outstanding palaces of this era, it can be concluded that the continuation of Safavid architecture early in this period, Qajar kings' tendency to Iranian ancient architecture, and the culmination of the architectural influence of the West in the Nasserid Era were the main factors effective on the formation of Qajar palaces. Moreover, the evolution of these buildings has occurred in three pre, early and late Nasserid Eras with various traditional, eclectic and European characteristics regarding the construction period and the effects of the above factors on the evolution of plans and circulation systems, facades and sections, materials, decorations, and architectural elements. In addition to shedding more light on common features of architecture and decoration of Qajar palaces, the study tried to determine their general and specific differences.