تأویل های گوناگون عطّار نیشابوری و صبغه های استعاری، مفهومی و تشبیهی آن ها
آرشیو
چکیده
ادب فارسی به ویژه نوع عرفانی آن با قرآن کریم و حدیث انسی دیرینه دارد. افزون بر بهره برداری متعارف از این دو منبع مهم اسلامی، گاه شاعران صرفاً عین آیات و احادیث را نقل کرده اند، گاه دست به تأویل زده و در مواردی هم ساختارشکنی کرده اند. عطار نیشابوری از تأویل کنندگان عارف است. او با استعاره، تلمیح و تمثیل، به زبانی ساده و روان و گاه با "زبان اشارت و رمزگ تأویل کرده است. تأویل های ساختاری یا زبانی او در سه گونه واژه محور (واژگانی-استعاری)، جمله محور (انداموار و بر سیاق دو سوی تشبیه مرکب) و خوشه ای (به سان استعاره مفهومی) عرضه شده اند که با بهره گیری از عنصرهای ادبی (تلمیح، تشبیه، تمثیل، استعاره، مجاز، کنایه، نماد، رمز، اغراق، ایهام، آیرونی و حُسن تعلیل) صبغه بلاغی یافته اند. از حیث محتوا هم عطار برابر مشرب عرفانی خود تأویل هایی بدیع و ساختارشکن با درون مایه های عرفانی، اخلاقی، و اجتماعی فراروی خواننده قرار داده؛ و حتی گاه میان نمادهای اساطیری و عرفانی پیوند زده است. در این جستار که گزارشی از پژوهشی توصیفی تحلیلی است به این پرسش که «عطار نیشابوری در آثارش کدام روش بلاغی را هنگام تأویل به کار برده است؟» پاسخ داده شد. عطار در تأویل های خود با استفاده از تلمیح، تمثیل و استعاره قراردادن عناصر متن و گاه با بیان آیرونیک، کنایی و رمزی جنبه ادبی متن را به نکات عارفانه، دینی و تعلیمی پیوند زده است تا صراحت و خشکی مباحث موجب خستگی خواننده نشود و متن ضمن داشتن نکات عرفانی، رنگ ادبی-بلاغی خود را حفظ کند.Rhetorical Nuances in Different Interpretations of Attar Nishaburi
Persian literature, particularly its mystical genre, has a long-standing connection with the Holy Quran and Hadith. Beyond the conventional use of these two important Islamic sources, poets have sometimes directly quoted verses and hadiths, at other times engaged in interpretation (ta'wil), and in some instances, even deconstructed their structures. Attar Nishapuri is among the mystic interpreters. Through metaphor, allusion, and allegory, he interprets in a simple and fluent language, often employing "the language of allusion and symbolism." His structural or linguistic interpretations are presented in three forms: word-centered (lexical-metaphorical), sentence-centered (organic, following the structure of compound similes), and cluster-based (similar to conceptual metaphors). These interpretations gain rhetorical depth through the use of literary elements such as allusion, simile, allegory, metaphor, metonymy, irony, symbol, hyperbole, ambiguity, irony, and poetic justification. In terms of content, Attar, in line with his mystical approach, offers innovative and deconstructive interpretations with mystical, ethical, and social themes, sometimes even bridging mythological and mystical symbols. This study, which reports on a descriptive-analytical research, addresses the question: "Which rhetorical methods did Attar of Nishapur employ in his interpretations within his works?" Attar, in his interpretations, uses allusion, allegory, and metaphor to connect the literary aspect of the text with mystical, religious, and didactic points, often through ironic, symbolic, and allusive expressions. This approach ensures that the text retains its literary-rhetorical flavor while avoiding the monotony that might arise from overly explicit or dry discussions.
Introduction
Ta'wil, meaning the return to the origin of something, has its roots in various interpretations of religious texts and scriptures. While ta'wil and hermeneutics in the West differ from those practiced in Muslim countries and Iran, it appears that both rational, intellectual thought and inner, intuitive discovery play a role in the process of interpretation. In the East, intuitive interpretations are accepted provided they do not contradict the established meaning. The Holy Quran, the Prophetic tradition, and the methods of the prophets have deeply influenced all aspects of Muslim life. Islamic mysticism, and by extension Persian mysticism, has also adhered to the Quran and the Prophetic tradition in practice and methodology. Thus, referencing Quranic verses and engaging in their interpretation (sometimes to validate personal views) is a recurring feature in the poetic and prose works of Persian mystics. Ta'wil is also evident in the sayings of the Imams, including Imam Sadiq (peace be upon him), who described the Imams as guiding stars for humanity. Farid al-Din Attar Nishapuri, a mystic of the 6th and early 7th centuries AH, is considered a precursor to Rumi, with Rumi himself referencing Attar’s works. Attar’s writings are imbued with mysticism and are heavily influenced by his use of ta'wil to establish the validity of his teachings. For instance, his interpretation of the Conference of the Birds (Manteq al-Tayr), where the Simurgh represents the divine truth and the thirty birds symbolize spiritual seekers, or the story of Sheikh Sanʿan, who, despite his spiritual rank, achieves salvation through complete submission, exemplifies his interpretive approach.
Materials and Methods
This study aims to identify the various forms of ta'wil (lexical, sentence-based, and cluster-based) in Attar’s works and explore their connection to rhetorical and literary elements. The methodology involves first describing the stories, words, or sentences that have been interpreted, then analyzing the rhetorical techniques used in the ta'wil to highlight their metaphorical, allegorical, and other literary dimensions. The analysis emphasizes that Attar bases his interpretations on the distant meanings of words, their concrete examples, or similar claims or stories, often employing similes and analogies to enhance their effectiveness.
Discussion
The term ta'wil is used for "understanding the inner meaning of speech," "citing concrete examples," and "moving from the apparent to the probable meaning." Metaphor, simile, and allegory form the foundation of ta'wil. A notable feature of Attar’s interpretations is his literary language. Using simple and fluent language, he employs metaphor, allusion, simile, poetic justification, irony, allegory, and other rhetorical devices without resorting to complex or obscure terminology. He directs the content of mythological, historical, and religious allusions toward mysticism and its subtleties, thereby renewing and enriching familiar mystical teachings. Attar’s mystical interpretations are divided into structural (linguistic and rhetorical) and content-based (concrete examples). He uses metaphor, allusion, and allegory, often with a simple and fluent language, sometimes employing "the language of allusion" and symbolism. His structural or linguistic interpretations are presented in three forms: word-centered (lexical-metaphorical), sentence-centered (organic, following the structure of compound similes), and cluster-based (similar to conceptual metaphors). These interpretations gain rhetorical depth through literary elements such as allusion, simile, allegory, metaphor, metonymy, irony, symbol, hyperbole, ambiguity, irony, and poetic justification. In terms of content, Attar offers innovative and deconstructive interpretations with mystical, ethical, and social themes, sometimes bridging mythological and mystical symbols. For example, in Tazkirat al-Awliya (Attar, 1370/1991: 186-187), Attar interprets the "Throne" (Arsh) as the heart of the mystic. Bayazid Bastami, in a spiritual journey, reaches the Throne and seeks the Merciful. The Throne directs him to the broken heart, citing the Quranic verse: "I am near to the broken-hearted" (Quran 2:186). Bayazid’s interpretation of the verse "The Merciful is established on the Throne" (Quran Taha:5) is hermeneutically deconstructive. He describes the Throne as a "hungry, blood-stained wolf," reducing its sanctity to emphasize the value of the human heart, which he interprets as the true Throne of the Merciful. This interpretation is rooted in the hadith: "The heart of the believer is the Throne of the Merciful." Bayazid’s hermeneutic approach is holistic, where each part of the interpretation is interconnected, forming a hermeneutic circle, as described by Schleiermacher: "The part is understood within the framework of the whole, and vice versa" (Nietzsche, Heidegger, Gadamer, et al., 1395: 7).
Conclusion
The symbolic and allegorical nature of Attar’s works, along with his numerous interpretations of Quranic verses, hadiths, myths, and history, lends a unique character to his texts. Attar’s ta'wil is divided into structural or linguistic (word-centered, sentence-centered, and cluster-based) and content-based (concrete examples), presented through rhetorical forms such as allusion, simile, and metaphor. He interprets the soul as Nimrod and Pharaoh, the heart as Moses, trust as love, and the prostration of angels to Adam as a symbol of divine proximity. His interpretations of Quranic verses, hadiths, and terms (such as zakat as teaching knowledge) or mythological (e.g., Rostam) and historical (e.g., Moses) elements are achieved through allegory, metaphor, simile, poetic justification, and irony. Poetic justification often alters the content of his stories, leading to interpretations that defend the actions of Iblis or Adam’s error. Ironic expressions in his discourse result in ecstatic utterances (shathiyyat). Attar’s interpretations are adorned with rhetorical devices to make his speech novel and impactful, with metaphor, simile, allusion, poetic justification, and allegory being the most frequent. His interpretations frequently revolve around Quranic verses and hadiths, often focusing on Adam, Iblis, the Throne, trust, Nimrod, and Pharaoh.
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